Pulmonary vascular remodeling in pulmonary hypertension

Pulmonary vascular remodeling is the key structural alteration in pulmonary hypertension and involves changes in the intima, media and adventitia, often with the interplay of inflammatory cells. This review examines the pathology of these changes and highlights some of the pathogenetic mechanisms that underlie the remodeling process.

[1]  K. Kubo,et al.  [Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction]. , 1985, Kokyu to junkan. Respiration & circulation.

[2]  M. Ochs,et al.  Quantitative microscopy of the lung: a problem-based approach. Part 2: stereological parameters and study designs in various diseases of the respiratory tract. , 2013, American journal of physiology. Lung cellular and molecular physiology.

[3]  M. Humbert,et al.  Pathologic assessment of vasculopathies in pulmonary hypertension. , 2004, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[4]  R. Tuder,et al.  Metabolic reprogramming and inflammation act in concert to control vascular remodeling in hypoxic pulmonary hypertension. , 2015, Journal of applied physiology.

[5]  V. S. Zhdanov,et al.  Pulmonary artery adventitial changes and venous involvement in primary pulmonary hypertension. , 1995, The American journal of pathology.

[6]  N. Voelkel,et al.  Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist treatment reduces pulmonary hypertension generated in rats by monocrotaline. , 1994, American journal of respiratory cell and molecular biology.

[7]  B. Groves,et al.  Exuberant endothelial cell growth and elements of inflammation are present in plexiform lesions of pulmonary hypertension. , 1994, The American journal of pathology.

[8]  R. Schermuly,et al.  [Relevant issues in the pathology and pathobiology of pulmonary hypertension]. , 2014, Turk Kardiyoloji Dernegi arsivi : Turk Kardiyoloji Derneginin yayin organidir.

[9]  R. L. Williams,et al.  Three-dimensional reconstruction of pulmonary arteries in plexiform pulmonary hypertension using cell-specific markers. Evidence for a dynamic and heterogeneous process of pulmonary endothelial cell growth. , 1999, The American journal of pathology.

[10]  E. Weibel,et al.  American Thoracic Society Documents An Official Research Policy Statement of the American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society: Standards for Quantitative Assessment of Lung Structure , 2010 .

[11]  J. Chabon,et al.  The Causal Role of IL-4 and IL-13 in Schistosoma mansoni Pulmonary Hypertension. , 2015, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[12]  H. Palevsky,et al.  Classification of Histologic Lesions in Primary Pulmonary Hypertension Group Medial lesions Intimal lesions Medial hypertrophy Increased smooth muscle , 2005 .

[13]  B. Groves,et al.  Histopathology of primary pulmonary hypertension. A qualitative and quantitative study of pulmonary blood vessels from 58 patients in the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Primary Pulmonary Hypertension Registry. , 1989, Circulation.

[14]  M. Humbert,et al.  Increased interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 serum concentrations in severe primary pulmonary hypertension. , 1995, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[15]  B. Dahal,et al.  Immune and inflammatory cell involvement in the pathology of idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension. , 2012, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[16]  M. Maitland,et al.  Inflammation, growth factors, and pulmonary vascular remodeling. , 2009, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[17]  P. Hirth,et al.  Inhibition of the VEGF receptor 2 combined with chronic hypoxia causes cell death‐dependent pulmonary endothelial cell proliferation and severe pulmonary hypertension , 2001, FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.

[18]  K. Stenmark,et al.  The role of inflammation in hypoxic pulmonary hypertension: from cellular mechanisms to clinical phenotypes. , 2015, American journal of physiology. Lung cellular and molecular physiology.

[19]  M. Yacoub,et al.  The histopathology of 36 cases of plexogenic pulmonary arteriopathy , 1990, Histopathology.

[20]  H. Ghofrani,et al.  Mechanisms of disease: pulmonary arterial hypertension , 2011, Nature Reviews Cardiology.

[21]  W. Edwards,et al.  Primary pulmonary hypertension: a histopathologic study of 80 cases. , 1985, Mayo Clinic proceedings.

[22]  J. Edwards,et al.  The Pathology of Hypertensive Pulmonary Vascular Disease: A Description of Six Grades of Structural Changes in the Pulmonary Arteries with Special Reference to Congenital Cardiac Septal Defects , 1958, Circulation.

[23]  Horst Olschewski,et al.  Updated clinical classification of pulmonary hypertension. , 2009, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[24]  E. Weibel,et al.  Architecture of the Human Lung , 1962, Science.

[25]  K. Stenmark,et al.  Pulmonary artery adventitial fibroblasts cooperate with vasa vasorum endothelial cells to regulate vasa vasorum neovascularization: a process mediated by hypoxia and endothelin-1. , 2006, The American journal of pathology.

[26]  J. Newman,et al.  High-altitude pulmonary hypertension in cattle (brisket disease): Candidate genes and gene expression profiling of peripheral blood mononuclear cells , 2011, Pulmonary circulation.

[27]  A. Davidson,et al.  Inhibition of Hypoxic Pulmonary Vasoconstriction by Calcium Antagonists in Isolated Rat Lungs , 1976, Circulation research.

[28]  R. Speich,et al.  Clinical classification of pulmonary hypertension. , 2004, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[29]  D. Hyde,et al.  Design-Based Sampling and Quantitation of the Respiratory Airways , 2006, Toxicologic pathology.

[30]  P. Dorfmüller.  Pathology of pulmonary vascular diseases , 2011 .

[31]  C. Wagenvoort,et al.  Primary Pulmonary Hypertension: A Pathologic Study of the Lung Vessels in 156 Clinically Diagnosed Cases , 1970 .

[32]  E. K. Weir,et al.  Basic Science of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension for Clinicians: New Concepts and Experimental Therapies , 2010, Circulation.

[33]  R. Tuder,et al.  Pathology of pulmonary hypertension. , 2007, Clinics in chest medicine.

[34]  K. M. Smith,et al.  Classification and nomenclature , 1980 .

[35]  S. Groshong,et al.  Modern age pathology of pulmonary arterial hypertension. , 2012, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[36]  R. Trembath,et al.  Elevated Levels of Inflammatory Cytokines Predict Survival in Idiopathic and Familial Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension , 2010, Circulation.

[37]  G. Butrous,et al.  Schistosomiasis-associated pulmonary hypertension: pulmonary vascular disease: the global perspective. , 2010, Chest.

[38]  M. Humbert,et al.  Inflammation in pulmonary arterial hypertension , 2003, European Respiratory Journal.

[39]  N. Voelkel,et al.  Formation of Plexiform Lesions in Experimental Severe Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension , 2010, Circulation.

[40]  G. I. Barrow,et al.  Cowan and Steel's Manual for the identification of medical bacteria: Classification and nomenclature , 1993 .

[41]  R. Tuder.  How do we measure pathology in PAH (lung and RV) and what does it tell us about the disease. , 2014, Drug discovery today.

[42]  M. Skokan,et al.  Evidence for cell fusion is absent in vascular lesions associated with pulmonary arterial hypertension. , 2008, American journal of physiology. Lung cellular and molecular physiology.

[43]  G. Semenza,et al.  Expression of angiogenesis‐related molecules in plexiform lesions in severe pulmonary hypertension: evidence for a process of disordered angiogenesis , 2001, The Journal of pathology.