The frequency, nature, and effects of naturally occurring appearance-focused social comparisons.

This research examined the effects of naturally occurring appearance-focused social comparisons on women's affect, body satisfaction, and weight-related cognitions. During their daily activities, women reporting body dissatisfaction (n=53) and women reporting body satisfaction (n=34) recorded their reactions to comparison information. Body-dissatisfied women engaged in more comparisons and a greater proportion of upward comparisons than body-satisfied women. Upward comparisons were associated with an increase in negative affect, body dissatisfaction, and thoughts of exercising for both groups; however, body-dissatisfied women experienced a greater increase in thoughts of dieting following upward comparisons. The daily effects of comparison information on body-dissatisfied women were examined; upward comparisons were associated with increases in daily negative affect, body dissatisfaction, and weight-related cognitions.

[1]  I. Kreft.  Are multilevel techniques necessary?: An overview, including simulation studies , 2005 .

[2]  James E. Mosimann,et al.  Cultural expectations of thinness in women: An update. , 1992 .

[3]  J. Crowther,et al.  The Etiology of bulimia nervosa : the individual and familial context , 2013 .

[4]  Steven J. Kass,et al.  A Factor Analytic Study of the Boredom Proneness Scale , 1990 .

[5]  K. Gergen,et al.  Social comparison, self-consistency, and the concept of self. , 1970, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[6]  E. Silber,et al.  Self-Esteem: Clinical Assessment and Measurement Validation , 1965 .

[7]  J. Thompson,et al.  Body image and body shape ideals in magazines: exposure, awareness, and internalization , 1997 .

[8]  H Jick,et al.  The Demand for Eating Disorder Care , 1996, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[9]  J. Thompson,et al.  Body Image and Televised Images of Thinness and Attractiveness: A Controlled Laboratory Investigation , 1995 .

[10]  T. Craig,et al.  Influence of demographic characteristics on two measures of depressive symptoms: the relation of prevalence and persistence of symptoms with sex, age, education, and marital status. , 1979, Archives of general psychiatry.

[11]  C. Fairburn,et al.  Confusion over the core psychopathology of bulimia nervosa. , 1993, The International journal of eating disorders.

[12]  Peter Salovey,et al.  Some antecedents and consequences of social-comparison jealousy , 1984 .

[13]  Yuk Fai Cheong,et al.  HLM 6: Hierarchical Linear and Nonlinear Modeling , 2000 .

[14]  W. Dunlap,et al.  Meta-Analysis of Experiments With Matched Groups or Repeated Measures Designs , 1996 .

[15]  R. L. Bowman,et al.  Accuracy of self-reported weight: A meta-analysis , 1992 .

[16]  W M O'Fallon,et al.  The ups and downs of anorexia nervosa. , 1999, The International journal of eating disorders.

[17]  Jacob Cohen.  Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences , 1969, The SAGE Encyclopedia of Research Design.

[18]  E. Stice,et al.  Relation of media exposure to eating disorder symptomatology: an examination of mediating mechanisms. , 1994, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[19]  P. Lachenbruch.  Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.) , 1989 .

[20]  J. Kulik,et al.  Social comparison and women's body satisfaction. , 2002 .

[21]  J. Smyth,et al.  The use of ecological momentary assessment approaches in eating disorder research. , 2001, International Journal of Eating Disorders.

[22]  Z. Kunda,et al.  Superstars and me : Predicting the impact of role models on the self , 1997 .

[23]  J. Polivy,et al.  Dieting and binging. A causal analysis. , 1985, The American psychologist.

[24]  Sarah K. Murnen,et al.  The effect of experimental presentation of thin media images on body satisfaction: a meta-analytic review. , 2002, The International journal of eating disorders.

[25]  L. M. Irving,et al.  Mirror Images: Effects of the Standard of Beauty on the Self- and Body-Esteem of Women Exhibiting Varying Levels of Bulimic Symptoms , 1990 .

[26]  A. Tesser,et al.  Some Affective Consequences of Social Comparison and Reflection Processes: The Pain and Pleasure of Being Close , 1988 .

[27]  David H. Demo.  The Measurement of Self-Esteem: Refining Our Methods , 1985 .

[28]  M. Rosenberg.  Society and the adolescent self-image , 1966 .

[29]  M. Tiggemann,et al.  The Role of Social Comparison in the Effect of Magazine Advertisements on Women's Mood and Body Dissatisfaction , 2004 .

[30]  L. Radloff.  The CES-D Scale , 1977 .

[31]  J. Thompson,et al.  Explanations of body image disturbance: a test of maturational status, negative verbal commentary, social comparison, and sociocultural hypotheses. , 1996, The International journal of eating disorders.

[32]  D. Garner,et al.  Cultural Expectations of Thinness in Women , 1980, Psychological reports.

[33]  M. Taylor,et al.  The development and validation of the body shape questionnaire , 1987 .

[34]  D. Espelage,et al.  Trends in eating disorder symptomatology in an outpatient clinic: 1988-1998. , 2003, Eating behaviors.

[35]  David Watson,et al.  The PANAS-X manual for the positive and negative affect schedule , 1994 .

[36]  P. Mikulka,et al.  Attitudinal body-image assessment: factor analysis of the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire. , 1990, Journal of personality assessment.

[37]  S. E. Taylor,et al.  Social comparison activity under threat: downward evaluation and upward contacts. , 1989, Psychological review.

[38]  J. Rodin,et al.  Women and weight: a normative discontent. , 1985, Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation.

[39]  R. H. Walters,et al.  Effects of anxiety and socially mediated anxiety reduction on paired-associate learning. , 1969, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[40]  Anthony S. Bryk,et al.  Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods , 1992 .

[41]  L. Festinger.  A Theory of Social Comparison Processes , 1954 .

[42]  J. Kevin Thompson,et al.  Body image, mood, and televised images of attractiveness: The role of social comparison. , 2000 .

[43]  S. Hollon,et al.  The investigation of schematic content and processing in eating disorders , 1990, Cognitive Therapy and Research.

[44]  J. Brooks-Gunn,et al.  Development of Eating Problems in Adolescent Girls: A Longitudinal Study. , 1989 .

[45]  B. Major,et al.  The impact of social comparisons after failure: the moderating effects of perceived control , 1990 .

[46]  J. Thompson,et al.  Exacting Beauty: Theory, Assessment, And Treatment Of Body Image Disturbance , 2004 .

[47]  D. A. Fantini,et al.  Possible causes of the thin standard of bodily attractiveness for women , 1986 .

[48]  C. Fairburn,et al.  Assessment of eating disorders: interview or self-report questionnaire? , 1994, The International journal of eating disorders.

[49]  T. F. Cash,et al.  Body Image - A Handbook of Theory, Research and Clinical Practice Thomas F Cash Body Image - A Handbook of Theory, Research and Clinical Practice and Thomas Pruzinsky Guilford Press 380pp £22 1593850158 1593850158 [Formula: see text]. , 2005, Nursing standard (Royal College of Nursing (Great Britain) : 1987).

[50]  Herbert W. Marsh,et al.  Determinants of student self-concept: Is it better to be a relatively large fish in a small pond even if you don't learn to swim as well? , 1984 .

[51]  T McFarlane,et al.  Eating disorders, dieting, and the accuracy of self-reported weight. , 2001, The International journal of eating disorders.

[52]  E. Stice.  Review of the evidence for a sociocultural model of bulimia nervosa and an exploration of the mechanisms of action. , 1994 .

[53]  J. Rosen,et al.  Body Shape Questionnaire: studies of validity and reliability. , 1996, The International journal of eating disorders.

[54]  R. Burns.  The Self Concept In Theory, Measurement, Development, And Behaviour , 1979 .

[55]  F. Gibbons,et al.  Social comparison and depression: company's effect on misery. , 1986, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[56]  M. Coovert,et al.  Body image, social comparison, and eating disturbance: a covariance structure modeling investigation. , 1999, The International journal of eating disorders.

[57]  E. Stice,et al.  Adverse effects of the media portrayed thin-ideal on women and linkages to bulimic symptomatology. , 1994 .

[58]  K. L. Hakmiller,et al.  Threat as a determinant of downward comparison , 1966 .

[59]  L. Lemyre,et al.  Intergroup Discrimination and Self-Esteem in the Minimal Group Paradigm , 1985 .