The Promise of Prevention: The Effects of Four Preventable Risk Factors on National Life Expectancy and Life Expectancy Disparities by Race and County in the United States

Majid Ezzati and colleagues examine the contribution of a set of risk factors (smoking, high blood pressure, elevated blood glucose, and adiposity) to socioeconomic disparities in life expectancy in the US population.

[1]  M. Petticrew,et al.  Population tobacco control interventions and their effects on social inequalities in smoking: systematic review , 2008, Tobacco Control.

[2]  M. Peek,et al.  Diabetes Health Disparities , 2007, Medical care research and review : MCRR.

[3]  B. Bradshaw,et al.  Rethinking the Hispanic paradox: death rates and life expectancy for US non-Hispanic White and Hispanic populations. , 2006, American journal of public health.

[4]  M. Woodward,et al.  Body mass index and cardiovascular disease in the Asia-Pacific Region: an overview of 33 cohorts involving 310 000 participants. , 2004, International journal of epidemiology.

[5]  K. Jung-Choi,et al.  The contribution of material, psychosocial, and behavioral factors in explaining educational and occupational mortality inequalities in a nationally representative sample of South Koreans: relative and absolute perspectives. , 2009, Social science & medicine.

[6]  C. Champagne,et al.  Assessment of the diet quality of US adults in the Lower Mississippi Delta. , 2007, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[7]  Daniel W. Jones,et al.  The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. , 2003, JAMA.

[8]  L. Franzini,et al.  Understanding the Hispanic paradox. , 2001, Ethnicity & disease.

[9]  David C Hoaglin,et al.  Prediction of First Events of Coronary Heart Disease and Stroke With Consideration of Adiposity , 2008, Circulation.

[10]  Sharon Friel,et al.  Closing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health , 2008, The Lancet.

[11]  P. Raskin,et al.  Report of the expert committee on the diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. , 1999, Diabetes care.

[12]  R. Koopman,et al.  Race and diet in the overweight: association with cardiovascular risk in a nationally representative sample. , 2005, Nutrition.

[13]  Eliminating Racial,et al.  COMMITTEE ON UNDERSTANDING AND ELIMINATING RACIAL AND ETHNIC DISPARITIES IN HEALTH CARE , 2003 .

[14]  A. Mokdad,et al.  Trends in hypercholesterolemia, treatment and control among United States adults. , 2010, International journal of cardiology.

[15]  Majid Ezzati,et al.  The burden of disease and injury in the United States 1996 , 2006, Population health metrics.

[16]  A. Coale,et al.  Revised regional model life tables at very low levels of mortality. , 1989, Population index.

[17]  Ross Mullner,et al.  Insuring America's Health: Principles and Recommendations , 2005 .

[18]  D. Mozaffarian,et al.  Heart disease and stroke statistics--2009 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. , 2009, Circulation.

[19]  N. Krieger,et al.  The Fall and Rise of US Inequities in Premature Mortality: 1960–2002 , 2008, PLoS medicine.

[20]  S. Eberhardt,et al.  Life Expectancy in Four U.S. Racial/Ethnic Populations: 1990 , 1995, Epidemiology.

[21]  T. Lu,et al.  Certifying diabetes-related cause-of-death: a comparison of inappropriate certification statements in Sweden, Taiwan and the USA , 2006, Diabetologia.

[22]  Robert Tibshirani,et al.  Bootstrap Methods for Standard Errors, Confidence Intervals, and Other Measures of Statistical Accuracy , 1986 .

[23]  F. Hu,et al.  Association of overweight with increased risk of coronary heart disease partly independent of blood pressure and cholesterol levels: a meta-analysis of 21 cohort studies including more than 300 000 persons. , 2007, Archives of internal medicine.

[24]  Ari B. Friedman,et al.  The Reversal of Fortunes: Trends in County Mortality and Cross-County Mortality Disparities in the United States , 2008, PLoS medicine.

[25]  K. Jung-Choi,et al.  Explaining age-specific inequalities in mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease and ischaemic heart disease among South Korean male public servants: relative and absolute perspectives , 2007, Heart.

[26]  Ari B. Friedman,et al.  Diabetes prevalence and diagnosis in US states: analysis of health surveys , 2009, Population health metrics.

[27]  J. House,et al.  Socioeconomic disparities in health change in a longitudinal study of US adults: the role of health-risk behaviors. , 2001, Social science & medicine.

[28]  B. Popkin,et al.  A comparison of dietary trends among racial and socioeconomic groups in the United States. , 1996, The New England journal of medicine.

[29]  N. Adler,et al.  Socio-economic status and health in industrialised nations: social, psychological and biological pathways , 1999 .

[30]  M. Reichman,et al.  An overview of methods for monitoring social disparities in cancer with an example using trends in lung cancer incidence by area-socioeconomic position and race-ethnicity, 1992-2004. , 2008, American journal of epidemiology.

[31]  Majid Ezzati,et al.  For Personal Use. Only Reproduce with Permission from the Lancet Publishing Group , 2022 .

[32]  Margaret Edmunds,et al.  BOARD ON HEALTH CARE SERVICES INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE , 1998 .

[33]  D. Spiegelman,et al.  Point and interval estimates of partial population attributable risks in cohort studies: examples and software , 2007, Cancer Causes & Control.

[34]  C. Murray,et al.  Understanding the Coronary Heart Disease Versus Total Cardiovascular Mortality Paradox: A Method to Enhance the Comparability of Cardiovascular Death Statistics in the United States , 2006, Circulation.

[35]  Majid Ezzati,et al.  Estimates of global and regional potential health gains from reducing multiple major risk factors , 2003, The Lancet.

[36]  Giovanni Corrao,et al.  A meta-analysis of alcohol consumption and the risk of 15 diseases. , 2004, Preventive medicine.

[37]  G. Smith,et al.  Mortality differences between black and white men in the USA: contribution of income and other risk factors among men screened for the MRFIT , 1998, The Lancet.

[38]  Majid Ezzati,et al.  Eight Americas: Investigating Mortality Disparities across Races, Counties, and Race-Counties in the United States , 2006, PLoS medicine.

[39]  Alan D. Lopez,et al.  Comparative quantification of health risks: Conceptual framework and methodological issues , 2003, Population health metrics.

[40]  Michael M. Engelgau,et al.  Prevalence of Diabetes and Impaired Fasting Glucose in Adults in the U.S. Population , 2006, Diabetes Care.

[41]  Anthony Rodgers,et al.  Effectiveness and costs of interventions to lower systolic blood pressure and cholesterol: a global and regional analysis on reduction of cardiovascular-disease risk , 2003, The Lancet.

[42]  M. Siahpush,et al.  Widening socioeconomic inequalities in US life expectancy, 1980-2000. , 2006, International journal of epidemiology.

[43]  M. Marmot,et al.  Best-practice interventions to reduce socioeconomic inequalities of coronary heart disease mortality in UK: a prospective occupational cohort study , 2008, The Lancet.

[44]  E. Huang,et al.  Cardiovascular health disparities: a systematic review of health care interventions. , 2007, Medical care research and review : MCRR.

[45]  Susan L Ettner,et al.  Contribution of major diseases to disparities in mortality. , 2002, The New England journal of medicine.

[46]  D. Mozaffarian,et al.  Heart disease and stroke statistics--2009 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. , 2009, Circulation.

[47]  M. J. Banks M. Glymour and J. Mackenback Avendano Health disadvantage in US adults aged 50-74: Are poor Europeans healthier than wealth Americans? , 2009 .

[48]  B. Smedley,et al.  Unequal Treatment: Con-fronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care , 2002 .

[49]  S. Preston,et al.  Demography: Measuring and Modeling Population Processes , 2000 .

[50]  D. Mozaffarian,et al.  The Preventable Causes of Death in the United States: Comparative Risk Assessment of Dietary, Lifestyle, and Metabolic Risk Factors , 2009, PLoS medicine.

[51]  M. Chin,et al.  Interventions to Reduce Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care , 2007, Medical care research and review : MCRR.

[52]  J. Cutler,et al.  Trends and disparities in coronary heart disease, stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases in the United States: findings of the national conference on cardiovascular disease prevention. , 2000, Circulation.

[53]  Avis J. Thomas,et al.  Race/ethnicity, income, major risk factors, and cardiovascular disease mortality. , 2005, American journal of public health.

[54]  M. Law,et al.  By how much does dietary salt reduction lower blood pressure? I--Analysis of observational data among populations. , 1991, BMJ.

[55]  Witold Zatonski,et al.  Social inequalities in male mortality, and in male mortality from smoking: indirect estimation from national death rates in England and Wales, Poland, and North America , 2006, The Lancet.

[56]  C. Murray,et al.  Trends in national and state-level obesity in the USA after correction for self-report bias: analysis of health surveys. , 2006, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine.

[57]  N J Wald,et al.  By how much and how quickly does reduction in serum cholesterol concentration lower risk of ischaemic heart disease? , 1994, BMJ.

[58]  C. Murray,et al.  Are Americans Feeling Less Healthy? The Puzzle of Trends in Self-rated Health , 2009, American journal of epidemiology.

[59]  J. Mackenbach,et al.  Socioeconomic inequalities in health in 22 European countries. , 2008, The New England journal of medicine.

[60]  David M Nathan,et al.  10-year follow-up of diabetes incidence and weight loss in the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study. , 2009, Lancet.

[61]  Johan P Mackenbach,et al.  Health disadvantage in US adults aged 50 to 74 years: a comparison of the health of rich and poor Americans with that of Europeans. , 2009, American journal of public health.

[62]  A. Folsom,et al.  Absolute and attributable risks of cardiovascular disease incidence in relation to optimal and borderline risk factors: comparison of African American with white subjects--Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. , 2007, Archives of internal medicine.

[63]  C. Mathers,et al.  Chronic disease prevention: health effects and financial costs of strategies to reduce salt intake and control tobacco use , 2007, The Lancet.

[64]  M. Marmot Achieving health equity: from root causes to fair outcomes , 2007, The Lancet.

[65]  C. Murray,et al.  Trends and Cardiovascular Mortality Effects of State-Level Blood Pressure and Uncontrolled Hypertension in the United States , 2008, Circulation.

[66]  M. Ezzati,et al.  Tobacco Smoke, Indoor Air Pollution and Tuberculosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis , 2007, PLoS medicine.

[67]  S. Harper,et al.  Trends in the black-white life expectancy gap in the United States, 1983-2003. , 2007, JAMA.

[68]  P. Elliott,et al.  The INTERSALT study: main results, conclusions and some implications. , 1989, Clinical and experimental hypertension. Part A, Theory and practice.

[69]  J. Neaton,et al.  Mortality differences between black and white men in the USA: contribution of income and other risk factors among men screened for the MRFIT. MRFIT Research Group. Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial , 1998 .

[70]  G. Mensah,et al.  Socioeconomic status and trends in disparities in 4 major risk factors for cardiovascular disease among US adults, 1971-2002. , 2006, Archives of internal medicine.

[71]  M. Law,et al.  By how much does dietary salt reduction lower blood pressure? I--Analysis of observational data among populations. , 1991, BMJ.