Mental workload and driving

The aim of this review is to identify the most representative measures of subjective and objective mental workload in driving, and to understand how the subjective and objective levels of mental workload influence the performance as a function of situation complexity and driving experience, i.e., to verify whether the increase of situation complexity and the lack of experience increase the subjective and physiological levels of mental workload and lead to driving performance impairments. This review will be useful to both researchers designing an experimental study of mental workload and to designers of drivers’ training content. In the first part, we will broach the theoretical approach with two factors of mental workload and performance, i.e., situation complexity and driving experience. Indeed, a low complex situation (e.g., highways), or conversely a high complex situation (e.g., town) can provoke an overload. Additionally, performing the driving tasks implies producing a high effort for novice drivers who have not totally automated the driving activity. In the second part, we will focus on subjective measures of mental workload. A comparison of questionnaires usually used in driving will allow identifying the most appropriate ones as a function of different criteria. Moreover, we will review the empirical studies to verify if the subjective level of mental workload is high in simple and very complex situations, especially for novice drivers compared to the experienced ones. In the third part, we will focus on physiological measures. A comparison of physiological indicators will be realized in order to identify the most correlated to mental workload. An empirical review will also take the effect of situation complexity and experience on these physiological indicators into consideration. Finally, a more nuanced comparison between subjective and physiological measures will be established from the impact on situation complexity and experience.

[1]  Peter Nickel,et al.  Sensitivity and Diagnosticity of the 0.1-Hz Component of Heart Rate Variability as an Indicator of Mental Workload , 2003, Hum. Factors.

[2]  M Jessurun,et al.  Effect of road layout and road environment on driving performance, drivers' physiology and road appreciation. , 1995, Ergonomics.

[3]  Karel Brookhuis,et al.  The feasibility of detecting phone-use related driver distraction , 2001 .

[4]  P. Tsang,et al.  Diagnosticity and multidimensional subjective workload ratings. , 1996, Ergonomics.

[5]  J. Deutsch.  Perception and Communication , 1958, Nature.

[6]  D. Kahneman,et al.  Attention and Effort , 1973 .

[7]  David Meister,et al.  Behavioral foundations of system development , 1984 .

[8]  Jens Rasmussen,et al.  What can be Learned from Human Error Reports , 1980 .

[9]  J. Rassmusen,et al.  Information Processing and Human - Machine Interaction: An Approach to Cognitive Engineering , 1986 .

[10]  Karel Brookhuis,et al.  Estimating mental effort using heart rate and heart rate variability. , 2004 .

[11]  Dick de Waard,et al.  The measurement of drivers' mental workload , 1996 .

[12]  J. G. Hollands,et al.  Engineering Psychology and Human Performance , 1984 .

[13]  Nicholas Roy,et al.  The impact of a naturalistic hands-free cellular phone task on heart rate and simulated driving performance in two age groups , 2011 .

[14]  John Sweller,et al.  Some cognitive processes and their consequences for the organisation and presentation of information , 1993 .

[15]  Torbjörn Falkmer,et al.  Fixation patterns of learner drivers with and without cerebral palsy (CP) when driving in real traffic environments , 2001 .

[16]  K A Brookhuis,et al.  The effects of mobile telephoning on driving performance. , 1991, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[17]  Wei Zhang,et al.  A Review of Driver Mental Workload in Driver-Vehicle-Environment System , 2011, HCI.

[18]  Marika Hoedemaeker,et al.  Driving with a Congestion Assistant; mental workload and acceptance. , 2009, Applied ergonomics.

[19]  Jens Rasmussen,et al.  Information Processing and Human-Machine Interaction , 1986 .

[20]  Matthew W. Miller,et al.  A novel approach to the physiological measurement of mental workload. , 2011, International journal of psychophysiology : official journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology.

[21]  L. Mulder.  Assessment of cardiovascular reactivity by means of spectral analysis , 1988 .

[22]  H. Critchley,et al.  Neural Activity Relating to Generation and Representation of Galvanic Skin Conductance Responses: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study , 2000, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[23]  Thomas E. Nygren,et al.  The Subjective Workload Assessment Technique: A Scaling Procedure for Measuring Mental Workload , 1988 .

[24]  Andrew Steptoe,et al.  Cortisol awakening response and psychosocial factors: A systematic review and meta-analysis , 2009, Biological Psychology.

[25]  Michael A. Regan,et al.  The Possible Safety Benefits of Enhanced Road Markings: A Driving Simulator Evaluation , 2006 .

[26]  Benjamin F. Rodriguez,et al.  Psychometric Properties , 2009 .

[27]  Nils Petter Gregersen.  PREVENTION OF ROAD ACCIDENTS AMONG YOUNG NOVICE CAR DRIVERS , 1995 .

[28]  Dick de Waard,et al.  Monitoring drivers' mental workload in driving simulators using physiological measures. , 2010, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[29]  G. Borghini,et al.  Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews , 2022 .

[30]  F.R.H. Zijlstra,et al.  Efficiency in work behaviour: A design approach for modern tools , 1993 .

[31]  A. Maldonado,et al.  Risk behaviour and mental workload: Multimodal assessment techniques applied to motorbike riding simulation , 2009 .

[32]  Friedhelm Nachreiner,et al.  Psychometric Properties of the 0.1 HZ Component of HRV as an Indicator of Mental Strain , 2000 .

[33]  ● Pytorch,et al.  Attention! , 1998, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[34]  M. Posner.  Chronometric explorations of mind , 1978 .

[35]  Karel A Brookhuis,et al.  Effects of steering demand on lane keeping behaviour, self-reports, and physiology. A simulator study. , 2011, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[36]  David Crundall,et al.  Effects of experience and processing demands on visual information acquisition in drivers , 1998 .

[37]  Albert Kircher,et al.  Driver experience and cognitive workload in different traffic environments. , 2006, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[38]  Stephen H. Boutcher,et al.  Cardiovascular response to Stroop: Effect of verbal response and task difficulty , 2006, Biological Psychology.

[39]  P. Jorna.  Spectral analysis of heart rate and psychological state: A review of its validity as a workload index , 1992, Biological Psychology.

[40]  S. Hart,et al.  Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of Empirical and Theoretical Research , 1988 .

[41]  H. Gr.  Compensatory control in the regulation of human performance under stress and high workload; a cognitive-energetical framework. , 1997 .

[42]  D. Strayer,et al.  Supertaskers: Profiles in extraordinary multitasking ability , 2010, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[43]  Glenn F. Wilson,et al.  An Analysis of Mental Workload in Pilots During Flight Using Multiple Psychophysiological Measures , 2002 .

[44]  Mickaël Causse,et al.  Reward and Uncertainty Favor Risky Decision-Making in Pilots: Evidence from Cardiovascular and Oculometric Measurements , 2011, Applied psychophysiology and biofeedback.

[45]  Carol A. Manning,et al.  INVESTIGATING THE VALIDITY OF PERFORMANCE AND OBJECTIVE WORKLOAD EVALUATION RESEARCH (POWER) , 2001 .

[46]  Frank P. McKenna,et al.  It won't happen to me: Unrealistic optimism or illusion of control? , 1993 .

[47]  Thomas J Triggs,et al.  Examining novice driver calibration through novel use of a driving simulator , 2006 .

[48]  S D Ferrara,et al.  Alcohol, drugs and traffic safety. , 1987, British journal of addiction.

[49]  Susana Rubio,et al.  Evaluation of Subjective Mental Workload: A Comparison of SWAT, NASA‐TLX, and Workload Profile Methods , 2004 .

[50]  Rebekka S. Renner,et al.  Saccadic peak velocity sensitivity to variations in mental workload. , 2010, Aviation, space, and environmental medicine.

[51]  John A. Groeger,et al.  Risk perception and decision taking during the transition between novice and experienced driver status , 1988 .

[52]  Angela Didomenico,et al.  Interactive effects of physical and mental workload on subjective workload assessment , 2008 .

[53]  H. Hadj-Mabrouk,et al.  Chronobiologie de la vigilance Approche d'application dans le domaine de la sécurité routière , 2001 .

[54]  G. Mulder.  The Concept and Measurement of Mental Effort , 1986 .

[55]  A F Kramer,et al.  The interpretation of the component structure of event-related brain potentials: an analysis of expert judgments. , 1985, Psychophysiology.

[56]  Allan F Williams,et al.  Teenage drivers: patterns of risk. , 2003, Journal of safety research.

[57]  Albi,et al.  Cognitive load measurement while driving , 2013 .

[58]  D de Waard,et al.  Road-edge delineation in rural areas: effects on driving behaviour , 2000, Ergonomics.

[59]  J. Veltman,et al.  Physiological indices of workload in a simulated flight task , 1996, Biological Psychology.

[60]  Christophe Jallais,et al.  Cognitive load measurement while driving. In : Human Factors: a view from an integrative perspective , 2012 .

[61]  D. Broadbent.  Perception and communication , 1958 .

[62]  Fokie Cnossen,et al.  Strategic changes in task performance in simulated car driving as an adaptive response to task demands , 2000 .

[63]  Saskia de Craen,et al.  The development of a method to measure speed adaptation to traffic complexity: identifying novice, unsafe, and overconfident drivers. , 2008, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[64]  N Moray,et al.  Where is capacity limited? A survey and a model. , 1967, Acta psychologica.

[65]  F. Paas,et al.  Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design , 1998 .

[66]  Catherine Berthelon,et al.  The Evaluation of Traditional and Early Driver Training With Simulated Accident Scenarios , 2011, Hum. Factors.

[67]  C. Collet,et al.  Physiological and behavioural changes associated to the management of secondary tasks while driving. , 2009, Applied ergonomics.

[68]  Kilseop Ryu,et al.  Evaluation of mental workload with a combined measure based on physiological indices during a dual task of tracking and mental arithmetic , 2005 .

[69]  D. Twisk,et al.  Safe driving and the training of calibration , 2001 .

[70]  A. Quimby,et al.  HUMAN FACTORS AND DRIVING PERFORMANCE , 1981 .

[71]  John A. Michon,et al.  A critical view of driver behavior models: What do we know , 1985 .

[72]  W B Verwey,et al.  On-line driver workload estimation. Effects of road situation and age on secondary task measures , 2000, Ergonomics.

[73]  D de Waard,et al.  Assessing driver status: a demonstration experiment on the road. , 1991, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[74]  G. R. J. Hockey.  Compensatory control in the regulation of human performance under stress and high workload: A cognitive-energetical framework , 1997, Biological Psychology.

[75]  L. Mulder.  Measurement and analysis methods of heart rate and respiration for use in applied environments , 1992, Biological Psychology.

[76]  Wolfgang Fastenmeier,et al.  DIE VERKEHRSSITUATION ALS ANALYSEEINHEIT IM VERKEHRSSYSTEM , 1995 .

[77]  Jens Rasmussen,et al.  Cognitive Control and Human Error Mechanisms , 1987 .

[78]  A. Kramer,et al.  Physiological metrics of mental workload: A review of recent progress , 1990, Multiple-task performance.

[79]  Eric Jamet,et al.  Subjective Measurement of Workload Related to a Multimodal Interaction Task: NASA-TLX vs. Workload Profile , 2007, HCI.

[80]  Bor-Shong Liu,et al.  In-vehicle workload assessment: effects of traffic situations and cellular telephone use. , 2006, Journal of safety research.

[81]  I D Brown.  HOW CAN WE TRAIN SAFE DRIVING , 1989 .

[82]  Catherine Berthelon,et al.  Does driving experience delay overload threshold as a function of situation complexity , 2013 .

[83]  P. Paubel.  Évaluation d’un système de résolution de conflits, ERASMUS : apport de l’oculométrie comme mesure de la charge mentale chez les contrôleurs aériens en-route , 2011 .

[84]  Georg Jahn,et al.  Peripheral detection as a workload measure in driving: Effects of traffic complexity and route guidance system use in a driving study , 2005 .

[85]  Aline Chevalier,et al.  The use of Tholos software for combining measures of mental workload: Toward theoretical and methodological improvements , 2008, Behavior research methods.

[86]  C. Wickens.  Engineering psychology and human performance, 2nd ed. , 1992 .

[87]  B Biehl,et al.  IS DRIVER TRAINING CONTRIBUTING ENOUGH TOWARDS ROAD SAFETY?. ROAD USERS AND TRAFFIC SAFETY , 1987 .

[88]  Walter Schneider,et al.  Controlled and Automatic Human Information Processing: 1. Detection, Search, and Attention. , 1977 .

[89]  Xiao-Jiang Sun,et al.  Effects of mental workload on long-latency auditory-evoked-potential, salivary cortisol, and immunoglobulin A , 2011, Neuroscience Letters.

[90]  Dick de Waard,et al.  Merging into heavy motorway traffic by young and elderly drivers. , 2009, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[91]  Julien Cegarra,et al.  Revisiting Decision Support Systems for Cognitive Readiness , 2012 .

[92]  M. Forshaw.  What Are the Consequences , 2006 .

[93]  Wolfgang Fastenmeier,et al.  Driving Task Analysis as a Tool in Traffic Safety Research and Practice , 2007 .

[94]  Divera Twisk,et al.  SAFE DRIVING AND THE TRAINING OF CALIBRATION: LITERATURE REVIEW , 2001 .

[95]  A. Pauzie,et al.  A method to assess the driver mental workload: The driving activity load index (DALI) , 2008 .

[96]  Daniel Baldauf,et al.  Time perception as a workload measure in simulated car driving. , 2009, Applied ergonomics.

[97]  Dick de Waard,et al.  The consequences of an increase in heavy goods vehicles for passenger car drivers' mental workload and behaviour: a simulator study. , 2008, Accident; analysis and prevention.