Photobiology and growth of leather coral Sarcophyton cf. glaucum fragments stocked under low light in a recirculated system

Abstract Corals are considered promising sources of new natural products and their culture, under controlled conditions, may be the solution for a sustainable and continuous supply of their biomass. Light is of utmost importance for ex situ production of corals harboring zooxanthellae, as their photosynthetic performance can significantly affect coral physiology and growth. The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of three light Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) treatments (50, 80 and 120 μmol quanta m − 2  s − 1 ) promoted by 150 W (10,000 K) Hydrargyrum Quartz Iodide (HQI) lamps on the photobiology, survival and growth of the soft coral Sarcophyton cf. glaucum produced ex situ in recirculated systems. After 60 days of experiment coral fragments exposed to 50 μmol quanta m − 2  s − 1 presented significantly higher values of F v / F m and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, zooxanthellae density and most photosynthetic pigment concentrations, when compared with corals under higher PAR values. No significant differences were found on coral fragment survival and growth. S . cf. glaucum production under low PAR intensities can effectively reduce the production costs with electrical power, and simultaneously maximize the production of photosynthetic pigments or bioactive compounds mediated by the zooxanthellae.

[1]  Thomas A. Schlacher,et al.  Evaluation of artificial light regimes and substrate types for aquaria propagation of the staghorn coral Acropora solitaryensis , 2007 .

[2]  R. Gates,et al.  Photoacclimatization by the coral Montastraea cavernosa in the mesophotic zone: light, food, and genetics. , 2010, Ecology.

[3]  M. Veldhuis,et al.  SEPARATION OF CHLOROPHYLLS c1c2, AND c3 OF MARINE PHYTOPLANKTON BY REVERSED‐PHASE‐C18‐HIGH‐PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY 1 , 1992 .

[4]  R. Kerr,et al.  Diterpene biosynthesis by the dinoflagellate symbiont of the Caribbean gorgonian Pseudopterogorgia bipinnata , 2005 .

[5]  A. Alimonti,et al.  Coral aquaculture to support drug discovery. , 2013, Trends in biotechnology.

[6]  L. Peixe,et al.  Cnidarians as a Source of New Marine Bioactive Compounds—An Overview of the Last Decade and Future Steps for Bioprospecting , 2011, Marine drugs.

[7]  Bernhard Riegl,et al.  Function of Funnel-Shaped Coral Growth in a High-Sedimentation Environment , 1996 .

[8]  P. Frade,et al.  Distribution and photobiology of Symbiodinium types in different light environments for three colour morphs of the coral Madracis pharensis: is there more to it than total irradiance? , 2008, Coral Reefs.

[9]  Y. Benayahu,et al.  Rearing cuttings of the soft coral Sarcophyton glaucum (Octocorallia, Alcyonacea): towards mass production in a closed seawater system , 2010 .

[10]  F. Houlbrèque,et al.  Heterotrophy in Tropical Scleractinian Corals , 2009, Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.

[11]  Michael Kühl,et al.  Microenvironment and photosynthesis of zooxanthellae in scleractinian corals studied with microsensors for O2, pH and light , 1995 .

[12]  Rui J.M. Rocha,et al.  Comparative performance of light emitting plasma (LEP) and light emitting diode (LED) in ex situ aquaculture of scleractinian corals , 2013 .

[13]  S. Dove.  Scleractinian corals with photoprotective host pigments are hypersensitive to thermal bleaching , 2004 .

[14]  C. McFadden,et al.  Phylogenetic Relationships Within the Tropical Soft Coral Genera Sarcophyton and Lobophytum (Anthozoa, Octocorallia) , 2006 .

[15]  R. Calado,et al.  Advances in Breeding and Rearing Marine Ornamentals , 2011 .

[16]  J. A. Schell,et al.  Monitoring vegetation systems in the great plains with ERTS , 1973 .

[17]  L. Kaufman,et al.  Long‐term trends of coral imports into the United States indicate future opportunities for ecosystem and societal benefits , 2012 .

[18]  Trevor Platt,et al.  Photoinhibition of photosynthesis in natural assemblages of marine phytoplankton , 1980 .

[19]  R. Bidigare,et al.  Visibly healthy corals exhibit variable pigment concentrations and symbiont phenotypes , 2007, Coral Reefs.

[20]  E. A. Gall,et al.  Development of a new in vitro method to evaluate the photoprotective sunscreen activity of plant extracts against high UV-B radiation. , 2011, Talanta.

[21]  D. Tchernov,et al.  Photoacclimation mechanisms of corallimorpharians on coral reefs: Photosynthetic parameters of zooxanthellae and host cellular responses to variation in irradiance , 2010 .

[22]  René H. Wijffels,et al.  The effect of irradiance on long-term skeletal growth and net photosynthesis in Galaxea fascicularis under four light conditions , 2008 .

[23]  P. Falkowski,et al.  The effect of external nutrient resources on the optical properties and photosynthetic efficiency of Stylophora pistillata , 1990, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. B. Biological Sciences.

[24]  B. Rinkevich,et al.  Steps in the construction of underwater coral nursery, an essential component in reef restoration acts , 2006 .

[25]  J. Verreth,et al.  Light intensity, photoperiod duration, daily light flux and coral growth of Galaxea fascicularis in an aquarium setting: a matter of photons? , 2011, Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom.

[26]  C. Osmond,et al.  Two components of onset and recovery during photoinhibition of Ulva rotundata , 1992, Planta.

[27]  J. Reimer,et al.  Soft Coral Sarcophyton (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Octocorallia) Species Diversity and Chemotypes , 2012, PloS one.

[28]  K. Michalek-Wagner,et al.  Effects of Bleaching on Secondary Metabolite Chemistry of Alcyonacean Soft Corals , 2000, Journal of Chemical Ecology.

[29]  Z. Forsman,et al.  Investigating fragment size for culturing reef-building corals (Porites lobata and P. compressa) in ex situ nurseries , 2006 .

[30]  T Platt,et al.  Photo inhibition of photosynthesis in natural assemblages of marine phyto plankton , 1980 .

[31]  K. Michalek-Wagner,et al.  The effects of different strains of zooxanthellae on the secondary-metabolite chemistry and development of the soft-coral host Lobophytum compactum , 2001 .

[32]  M. Kühl,et al.  A microsensor study of light enhanced Ca2+ uptake and photosynthesis in the reef-building hermatypic coral Favia sp. , 2000 .

[33]  J. Verreth,et al.  The Biology and Economics of Coral Growth , 2011, Marine Biotechnology.

[34]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Absorption and utilization of radiant energy by light- and shade-adapted colonies of the hermatypic coral Stylophora pistillata , 1984, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences.

[35]  H. H. Beeftink,et al.  Light-Dependency of Growth and Secondary Metabolite Production in the Captive Zooxanthellate Soft Coral Sinularia flexibilis , 2009, Marine Biotechnology.

[36]  G. Winters,et al.  Spatial and temporal photoacclimation of Stylophora pistillata: zooxanthella size, pigmentation, location and clade , 2009 .

[37]  D. Faulkner,et al.  Marine natural products. , 1996, Natural product reports.

[38]  R. Kerr,et al.  Induction of terpene biosynthesis in dinoflagellate symbionts of Caribbean gorgonians. , 2006, Phytochemistry.

[39]  P. Ralph,et al.  Rapid light curves: A powerful tool to assess photosynthetic activity , 2005 .

[40]  J. Serôdio,et al.  Relationship of rapid light curves of variable fluorescence to photoacclimation and non-photochemical quenching in a benthic diatom , 2008 .

[41]  P. Ralph,et al.  Spatial heterogeneity in active chlorophyll fluorescence and PSII activity of coral tissues , 2002 .

[42]  D. Allemand,et al.  Long-term growth rates of four Mediterranean cold-water coral species maintained in aquaria , 2011 .

[43]  W. Dunlap,et al.  Bathymetric adaptations of reef-building corals at Davies Reef, Great Barrier Reef, Australia. II. Light saturation curves for photosynthesis and respiration , 1983 .

[44]  W. Bilger,et al.  Continuous recording of photochemical and non-photochemical chlorophyll fluorescence quenching with a new type of modulation fluorometer , 2004, Photosynthesis Research.

[45]  W. Fitt,et al.  Diurnal changes in photochemical efficiency and xanthophyll concentrations in shallow water reef corals : evidence for photoinhibition and photoprotection , 1999, Coral Reefs.

[46]  P. Bongaerts,et al.  In Situ Photobiology of Corals over Large Depth Ranges: a Multivariate Analysis on the Roles of Environment, Host, and Algal Symbiont , 2022 .

[47]  Robert A. Keyzers,et al.  Marine natural products. , 2012, Natural product reports.

[48]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Light-shade adaptation of Stylophora pistillata, a hermatypic coral from the Gulf of Eilat , 1981, Nature.

[49]  J. Serôdio,et al.  Effect of light intensity on post-fragmentation photobiological performance of the soft coral Sinularia flexibilis , 2013 .

[50]  P. Davies.  Short-term growth measurements of corals using an accurate buoyant weighing technique , 1989 .

[51]  B. Rinkevich.  Conservation of coral reefs through active restoration measures: recent approaches and last decade progress. , 2005, Environmental science & technology.

[52]  M. Lesser,et al.  Long-term changes in the chlorophyll fluorescence of bleached and recovering corals from Hawaii , 2008, Journal of Experimental Biology.

[53]  W. Fitt,et al.  Photoacclimation and the effect of the symbiotic environment on the photosynthetic response of symbiotic dinoflagellates in the tropical marine hydroid Myrionema amboinense. , 2001, Journal of experimental marine biology and ecology.

[54]  L. Mydlarz,et al.  Pseudopterosin biosynthesis in Symbiodinium sp., the dinoflagellate symbiont of Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae. , 2003, Chemistry & biology.

[55]  R. K. Trench,et al.  Acclimation and adaptation to irradiance in symbiotic dinoflagellates. I. Responses of the photosynthetic unit to changes in photon flux density , 1994 .

[56]  Serge Andréfouët,et al.  Spectral reflectance of coral , 2004, Coral Reefs.

[57]  T. Titlyanova,et al.  Reef-Building Corals—Symbiotic Autotrophic Organisms: 2. Pathways and Mechanisms of Adaptation to Light , 2004, Russian Journal of Marine Biology.

[58]  W. Müller,et al.  Sarcophytolide: a new neuroprotective compound from the soft coral Sarcophyton glaucum. , 1998, Toxicology.

[59]  J. Serôdio,et al.  Use of in vivo chlorophyll a fluorescence to quantify short-term variations in the productive biomass of intertidal microphytobenthos , 2001 .

[60]  K. Sebens,et al.  Effect of natural zooplankton feeding on the tissue and skeletal growth of the scleractinian coral Stylophora pistillata , 2003, Coral Reefs.

[61]  A. Douglas,et al.  Photosynthetic symbioses in animals. , 2008, Journal of experimental botany.

[62]  Z. Dubinsky,et al.  Photobehavior of stony corals: responses to light spectra and intensity , 2003, Journal of Experimental Biology.

[63]  C. Mazel,et al.  Optical spectra and pigmentation of Caribbean reef corals and macroalgae , 1999, Coral Reefs.

[64]  R. Woesik,et al.  Photo-acclimation dynamics of the coral Stylophora pistillata to low and extremely low light , 2001 .