Diet and lifestyle correlates of lutein in the blood and diet.

Observational studies have suggested an inverse relationship between dietary or serum lutein and risk for age-related macular degeneration and cataracts. This evidence has stimulated interest in the biological and other characteristics of lutein, and also zeaxanthin, a structurally similar carotenoid; together, they comprise the macular pigment. Accurate interpretation of data linking dietary intake or serum concentrations of lutein and zeaxanthin and risk for eye disease in epidemiologic and clinical studies requires knowledge of biological and nondietary factors influencing these intake data or concentrations. The primary aims of this study were to identify the correlates of dietary lutein + zeaxanthin intake and the determinants of serum lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations in a heterogeneous community-based sample of adults aged 18-92 y, recruited and examined at three U.S. sites (n = 2786). An additional aim was to identify the determinants of change in serum lutein concentration from baseline to 1 y in a subset of 1368 study participants followed prospectively. Demographic characteristics (age, sex, race/ethnicity, education), body mass index and lifestyle factors (exercise, sun exposure, smoking, alcohol consumption) were significantly (P < 0.05) associated with dietary lutein + zeaxanthin intake. Demographic characteristics, dietary intake, serum cholesterol concentration, body mass index and smoking explained 24% of the variance in serum lutein concentration. Race/ethnicity, education level and smoking had the strongest associations with serum lutein concentration. Every 10% increase in dietary lutein + zeaxanthin intake was associated with a 2.4% increase in serum lutein concentration. Notably, however, the amount of variance in serum concentration that is explained by demographic characteristics, health-related behaviors and lifestyle factors remains substantial.

[1]  O. Sommerburg,et al.  Fruits and vegetables that are sources for lutein and zeaxanthin: the macular pigment in human eyes , 1998, The British journal of ophthalmology.

[2]  C. Rock.  Carotenoids: biology and treatment. , 1997, Pharmacology & therapeutics.

[3]  R. Klein,et al.  Serum carotenoids and tocopherols and incidence of age-related nuclear cataract. , 1999, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[4]  R. Klein,et al.  Serum antioxidants and age-related macular degeneration in a population-based case-control study. , 1995, Archives of ophthalmology.

[5]  M. Gross,et al.  The repeatability of serum carotenoid, retinoid, and tocopherol concentrations in specimens of blood collected 15 years apart. , 2001, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[6]  A. Kristal,et al.  Measurement characteristics of the Women's Health Initiative food frequency questionnaire. , 1999, Annals of epidemiology.

[7]  D M Snodderly,et al.  Evidence for protection against age-related macular degeneration by carotenoids and antioxidant vitamins. , 1995, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[8]  Lawrence A. Yannuzzi,et al.  Dietary Carotenoids, Vitamins A, C, and E, and Advanced Age-Related Macular Degeneration , 1994 .

[9]  M Palta,et al.  Serum carotenoids and tocopherols and severity of nuclear and cortical opacities. , 1995, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[10]  J. Linseisen,et al.  Some dietary fibers reduce the absorption of carotenoids in women. , 1999, The Journal of nutrition.

[11]  E. Rimm,et al.  Associations of plasma carotenoid concentrations and dietary intake of specific carotenoids in samples of two prospective cohort studies using a new carotenoid database. , 1998, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[12]  P. Wilson,et al.  Carotenoid intakes, assessed by dietary questionnaire, are associated with plasma carotenoid concentrations in an elderly population. , 1999, The Journal of nutrition.

[13]  J. Castenmiller,et al.  The food matrix of spinach is a limiting factor in determining the bioavailability of beta-carotene and to a lesser extent of lutein in humans. , 1999, The Journal of nutrition.

[14]  R. Klein,et al.  Lutein and zeaxanthin in the diet and serum and their relation to age-related maculopathy in the third national health and nutrition examination survey. , 2001, American journal of epidemiology.

[15]  J M Holden,et al.  Carotenoid content of fruits and vegetables: an evaluation of analytic data. , 1993, Journal of the American Dietetic Association.

[16]  C. Rock,et al.  Demographic, dietary and lifestyle factors differentially explain variability in serum carotenoids and fat-soluble vitamins: baseline results from the sentinel site of the Olestra Post-Marketing Surveillance Study. , 1999, The Journal of nutrition.

[17]  B. Popkin,et al.  Health lifestyle patterns of U.S. adults. , 1994, Preventive medicine.

[18]  C. Cross,et al.  Destruction of tocopherols, carotenoids, and retinol in human plasma by cigarette smoke. , 1996, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[19]  C. Rock,et al.  Olestra Postmarketing Surveillance Study: design and baseline results from the sentinel site. , 1998, Journal of the American Dietetic Association.

[20]  G. Colditz,et al.  The disease burden associated with overweight and obesity. , 1999, JAMA.

[21]  J. C. Smith,et al.  Lutein, lycopene, and their oxidative metabolites in chemoprevention of cancer , 1995, Journal of cellular biochemistry. Supplement.

[22]  D. Snodderly,et al.  Sex Differences in Macular Pigment Optical Density: Relation to Plasma Carotenoid Concentrations and Dietary Patterns , 1996, Vision Research.

[23]  C. Rock,et al.  Changes in diet, weight, and serum lipid levels associated with olestra consumption. , 2000, Archives of internal medicine.

[24]  D. Y. Jones,et al.  Olestra affects serum concentrations of alpha-tocopherol and carotenoids but not vitamin D or vitamin K status in free-living subjects. , 1997, The Journal of nutrition.

[25]  D. Alberts,et al.  New carotenoid values for foods improve relationship of food frequency questionnaire intake estimates to plasma values. , 1996, Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology.

[26]  J. Weststrate,et al.  Amount of fat in the diet affects bioavailability of lutein esters but not of α-carotene, β-carotene, and vitamin E in humans , 2000 .

[27]  D Spiegelman,et al.  A prospective study of carotenoid intake and risk of cataract extraction in US men. , 1999, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[28]  R. Klein,et al.  Antioxidant intake and risk of incident age-related nuclear cataracts in the Beaver Dam Eye Study. , 1999, American journal of epidemiology.

[29]  T. Raghunathan,et al.  Effects of enhanced calling efforts on response rates, estimates of health behavior, and costs in a telephone health survey using random-digit dialing. , 1993, Public health reports.

[30]  R. Bone,et al.  Lutein and zeaxanthin in the eyes, serum and diet of human subjects. , 2000, Experimental eye research.

[31]  W. Willett,et al.  A prospective study of carotenoid and vitamin A intakes and risk of cataract extraction in US women. , 1999, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[32]  J. Mares-Perlman,et al.  Human serum carotenoid concentrations are related to physiologic and lifestyle factors. , 1996, The Journal of nutrition.

[33]  B. Clevidence,et al.  Association of carotenoids with human plasma lipoproteins. , 1993, Methods in enzymology.

[34]  David B. Haytowitz,et al.  Carotenoid Content of U.S. Foods: An Update of the Database , 1999 .