A Survey on Heart Biometrics

In recent years, biometrics (e.g., fingerprint or face recognition) has replaced traditional passwords and PINs as a widely used method for user authentication, particularly in personal or mobile d...

[1]  Xuan Zeng,et al.  HeartID: A Multiresolution Convolutional Neural Network for ECG-Based Biometric Human Identification in Smart Health Applications , 2017, IEEE Access.

[2]  M Paiva,et al.  Three-dimensional ballistocardiography and respiratory motion in sustained microgravity. , 2001, Aviation, space, and environmental medicine.

[3]  Jürgen Schmidhuber,et al.  Long Short-Term Memory , 1997, Neural Computation.

[4]  L. O. Svaasand,et al.  Remote plethysmographic imaging using ambient light. , 2008, Optics express.

[5]  Carmen C. Y. Poon,et al.  A novel biometrics method to secure wireless body area sensor networks for telemedicine and m-health , 2006, IEEE Communications Magazine.

[6]  K. J. Satoa.  An Attendance Monitoring System Using Biometrics , 2013 .

[7]  Qi Cheng,et al.  Joint Feature Extraction and Classifier Design for ECG-Based Biometric Recognition , 2016, IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics.

[8]  A. Lynn Abbott,et al.  ECG biometric authentication using a dynamical model , 2015, 2015 IEEE 7th International Conference on Biometrics Theory, Applications and Systems (BTAS).

[9]  Roberto Sassi,et al.  A preliminary study on continuous authentication methods for photoplethysmographic biometrics , 2013, 2013 IEEE Workshop on Biometric Measurements and Systems for Security and Medical Applications.

[10]  Andreas Christmann,et al.  Support vector machines , 2008, Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery Handbook.

[11]  R L Lux,et al.  Sources of variability in normal body surface potential maps. , 1989, Circulation.

[12]  Ibrahim Khalil,et al.  Data mining in mobile ECG based biometric identification , 2014, J. Netw. Comput. Appl..

[13]  Danilo Gligoroski,et al.  Walk the Walk: Attacking Gait Biometrics by Imitation , 2010, ISC.

[14]  Juan E. Tapiador,et al.  A Survey of Wearable Biometric Recognition Systems , 2016, ACM Comput. Surv..

[15]  Shahrzad Pouryayevali,et al.  ECG Biometrics: New Algorithm and Multimodal Biometric System , 2015 .

[16]  Jon Whittle,et al.  HeartLink: open broadcast of live biometric data to social networks , 2013, CHI.

[17]  Sanjay Kumar Singh,et al.  Fusion of electrocardiogram with unobtrusive biometrics: An efficient individual authentication system , 2012, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[18]  Xingshe Zhou,et al.  Extracting Heartbeat Intervals Using Self-adaptive Method Based on Ballistocardiography(BCG) , 2017, ICOST.

[19]  S. Leonhardt,et al.  Unsupervised Heart Rate Variability Estimation from Ballistocardiograms , 2013 .

[20]  Yuan-Ting Zhang,et al.  Extraction of Heart Rate Variability from Smartphone Photoplethysmograms , 2015, Comput. Math. Methods Medicine.

[21]  P.E. Trahanias,et al.  An approach to QRS complex detection using mathematical morphology , 1993, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[22]  Xavier Neyt,et al.  Three dimensional ballisto- and seismo-cardiography: HIJ wave amplitudes are poorly correlated to maximal systolic force vector , 2012, 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[23]  Adrian Tarniceriu,et al.  Evaluation of the beat-to-beat detection accuracy of PulseOn wearable optical heart rate monitor , 2015, 2015 37th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC).

[24]  Chenxi Yang,et al.  Motion noise cancellation in seismocardiographic monitoring of moving subjects , 2015, 2015 IEEE Biomedical Circuits and Systems Conference (BioCAS).

[25]  Olga Boric-Lubecke,et al.  Detection of Multiple Heartbeats Using Doppler Radar , 2006, 2006 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing Proceedings.

[26]  Kang-Ming Chang,et al.  Heart rate extraction from photoplethysmogram on fuzzy logic discriminator , 2010, Eng. Appl. Artif. Intell..

[27]  Yuan-Ting Zhang,et al.  An Efficient Biometric-Based Algorithm Using Heart Rate Variability for Securing Body Sensor Networks , 2015, Sensors.

[28]  Constantinos Gavriel,et al.  Smartphone as an ultra-low cost medical tricorder for real-time cardiological measurements via ballistocardiography , 2015, 2015 IEEE 12th International Conference on Wearable and Implantable Body Sensor Networks (BSN).

[29]  J. Webster,et al.  Dry electrodes for electrocardiography , 2013, Physiological measurement.

[30]  Marcin D. Bugdol,et al.  Multimodal biometric system combining ECG and sound signals , 2014, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[31]  Jong Hyuk Park,et al.  Hybrid security protocol for wireless body area networks , 2011, Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput..

[32]  Paul S. Addison,et al.  Running wavelet archetype aids the determination of heart rate from the video photoplethysmogram during motion , 2017, 2017 39th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC).

[33]  John J. Soraghan,et al.  Electrocardiogram (ECG) Biometric Authentication Using Pulse Active Ratio (PAR) , 2011, IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security.

[34]  Armando J. Pinho,et al.  Impact of the Acquisition Time on ECG Compression-Based Biometric Identification Systems , 2017, IbPRIA.

[35]  Quoc V. Le,et al.  Sequence to Sequence Learning with Neural Networks , 2014, NIPS.

[36]  A. L. N. Fred,et al.  Applicability of Lead V2 ECG Measurements in Biometrics , 2007 .

[37]  Xuan Zeng,et al.  PulsePrint: Single-arm-ECG biometric human identification using deep learning , 2017, 2017 IEEE 8th Annual Ubiquitous Computing, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference (UEMCON).

[38]  Krishna K. Venkatasubramanian,et al.  Detecting Signal Injection Attack-Based Morphological Alterations of ECG Measurements , 2016, 2016 International Conference on Distributed Computing in Sensor Systems (DCOSS).

[39]  Kouhyar Tavakolian,et al.  Ballistocardiography and Seismocardiography: A Review of Recent Advances , 2015, IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics.

[40]  Anil Kumar Tiwari,et al.  Heart monitoring systems - A review , 2014, Comput. Biol. Medicine.

[41]  Gregory T. A. Kovacs,et al.  Motion artifact cancellation to obtain heart sounds from a single chest-worn accelerometer , 2010, 2010 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing.

[42]  Qinqin Shen,et al.  Heart Sound Biometric System Based on Marginal Spectrum Analysis , 2013, Sensors.

[43]  R. Patterson,et al.  Fundamentals of impedance cardiography , 1989, IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine.

[44]  Anas Albulbul,et al.  Evaluating Major Electrode Types for Idle Biological Signal Measurements for Modern Medical Technology , 2016, Bioengineering.

[45]  Nina Jacobsen,et al.  Heart-valve sounds obtained with a Laser Doppler Vibrometer , 2016, 2016 Computing in Cardiology Conference (CinC).

[46]  Khalil El-Khatib,et al.  Continuous authentication by electrocardiogram data , 2009, 2009 IEEE Toronto International Conference Science and Technology for Humanity (TIC-STH).

[47]  Francesco Beritelli,et al.  Biometric Identification Based on Frequency Analysis of Cardiac Sounds , 2007, IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security.

[48]  Wan-Young Chung,et al.  Wearable Noncontact Armband for Mobile ECG Monitoring System , 2016, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems.

[49]  Sheng Wang,et al.  ECG-Based Heartbeat Classification Using Two-Level Convolutional Neural Network and RR Interval Difference , 2018, IEICE Trans. Inf. Syst..

[50]  Yuan-Ting Zhang,et al.  A novel biometric approach in human verification by photoplethysmographic signals , 2003, 4th International IEEE EMBS Special Topic Conference on Information Technology Applications in Biomedicine, 2003..

[51]  Brenda K. Wiederhold,et al.  ECG to identify individuals , 2005, Pattern Recognit..

[52]  C.-C. Jay Kuo,et al.  ECG-based biometrics using recurrent neural networks , 2017, 2017 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP).

[53]  Mehrdad Nourani,et al.  An adaptive deep learning approach for PPG-based identification , 2016, 2016 38th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC).

[54]  Tao Li,et al.  Your face your heart: Secure mobile face authentication with photoplethysmograms , 2017, IEEE INFOCOM 2017 - IEEE Conference on Computer Communications.

[55]  Jaime S. Cardoso,et al.  Evolution, Current Challenges, and Future Possibilities in ECG Biometrics , 2018, IEEE Access.

[56]  Yogendra Narain Singh,et al.  ECG Biometric Analysis Using Walsh–Hadamard Transform , 2018 .

[57]  Ana L. N. Fred,et al.  Novel fiducial and non-fiducial approaches to electrocardiogram-based biometric systems , 2013, IET Biom..

[58]  Mohamed Hammad,et al.  Cancelable biometric authentication system based on ECG , 2018, Multimedia Tools and Applications.

[59]  Przemyslaw Guzik,et al.  ECG by mobile technologies. , 2016, Journal of electrocardiology.

[60]  Zoubin Ghahramani,et al.  An Introduction to Hidden Markov Models and Bayesian Networks , 2001, Int. J. Pattern Recognit. Artif. Intell..

[61]  S. A. Khonsary.  Guyton and Hall: Textbook of Medical Physiology , 2017, Surgical Neurology International.

[62]  A. Gruetzmann,et al.  Novel dry electrodes for ECG monitoring , 2007, Physiological measurement.

[63]  David Menotti,et al.  Learning Deep Off-the-Person Heart Biometrics Representations , 2017, IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security.

[64]  Juan Arteaga-Falconi,et al.  ECG and fingerprint bimodal authentication , 2018, Sustainable Cities and Society.

[65]  Mikko Paukkunen,et al.  Beat-by-Beat Quantification of Cardiac Cycle Events Detected From Three-Dimensional Precordial Acceleration Signals , 2016, IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics.

[66]  Madhuchhanda Mitra,et al.  Application of Cross Wavelet Transform for ECG Pattern Analysis and Classification , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement.

[67]  Ahmet Resit Kavsaoglu,et al.  A novel feature ranking algorithm for biometric recognition with PPG signals , 2014, Comput. Biol. Medicine.

[68]  Ashok Veeraraghavan,et al.  PPGSecure: Biometric Presentation Attack Detection Using Photopletysmograms , 2017, 2017 12th IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face & Gesture Recognition (FG 2017).

[69]  B. Siddik Yarman,et al.  A novel biometric authentication approach using electrocardiogram signals , 2013, 2013 35th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC).

[70]  E L Melanson,et al.  Resting heart rate variability in men varying in habitual physical activity. , 2000, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[71]  T. D. Clark,et al.  An ultra-low-noise electrical-potential probe for human-body scanning , 2000 .

[72]  John Allen.  Photoplethysmography and its application in clinical physiological measurement , 2007, Physiological measurement.

[73]  Adriaan van Oosterom,et al.  Geometrical aspects of the interindividual variability of multilead ECG recordings , 2001, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[74]  L. O'Gorman,et al.  Comparing passwords, tokens, and biometrics for user authentication , 2003, Proceedings of the IEEE.

[75]  Dan Rissacher,et al.  Cardiac radar for biometric identification using nearest neighbour of continuous wavelet transform peaks , 2015, IEEE International Conference on Identity, Security and Behavior Analysis (ISBA 2015).

[76]  M. P. S. Chawla,et al.  PCA and ICA processing methods for removal of artifacts and noise in electrocardiograms: A survey and comparison , 2011, Appl. Soft Comput..

[77]  Syed Abdul Rahman Al-Haddad,et al.  ECG biometric authentication based on non-fiducial approach using kernel methods , 2016, Digit. Signal Process..

[78]  Raveendran Paramesran,et al.  Improving the Feature Stability and Classification Performance of Bimodal Brain and Heart Biometrics , 2015, SIRS.

[79]  Chenxi Yang,et al.  Motion noise cancellation in seismocardiogram of ambulant subjects with dual sensors , 2016, 2016 38th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC).

[80]  Akkarapol Sa-ngasoongsong,et al.  Wireless transmission of sensor signals for phonocardiology applications , 2010, 2010 IEEE Sensors.

[81]  Amin Mahnam,et al.  Design and Implementation of a Portable Impedance Cardiography System for Noninvasive Stroke Volume Monitoring , 2016, Journal of medical signals and sensors.

[82]  Ari Paasio,et al.  Seismocardiography: Toward heart rate variability (HRV) estimation , 2015, 2015 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA) Proceedings.

[83]  Liang Zhong,et al.  The electronic stethoscope , 2015, BioMedical Engineering OnLine.

[84]  Tzyy-Ping Jung,et al.  Dry-Contact and Noncontact Biopotential Electrodes: Methodological Review , 2010, IEEE Reviews in Biomedical Engineering.

[85]  Ashok Veeraraghavan,et al.  DistancePPG: Robust non-contact vital signs monitoring using a camera , 2015, Biomedical optics express.

[86]  Chenxi Yang,et al.  Combined Seismo- and Gyro-Cardiography: A More Comprehensive Evaluation of Heart-Induced Chest Vibrations , 2018, IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics.

[87]  Ola Pettersson,et al.  ECG analysis: a new approach in human identification , 2001, IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas..

[88]  Ana L. N. Fred,et al.  Finger ECG signal for user authentication: Usability and performance , 2013, 2013 IEEE Sixth International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications and Systems (BTAS).

[89]  D. Hatzinakos,et al.  ECG Biometric Recognition Without Fiducial Detection , 2006, 2006 Biometrics Symposium: Special Session on Research at the Biometric Consortium Conference.

[90]  A. van Oosterom,et al.  Normalization of the electrocardiogram by standardization of heart position and orientation , 1996, Computers in Cardiology 1996.

[91]  SalvadorStan,et al.  Toward accurate dynamic time warping in linear time and space , 2007 .

[92]  Ming Zhao,et al.  Biometric Electrocardiogram Card for Access Control System , 2011, 2011 Fifth International Conference on Genetic and Evolutionary Computing.

[93]  Ivan Martinovic,et al.  Broken Hearted: How To Attack ECG Biometrics , 2017, NDSS.

[94]  Huan Liu,et al.  Feature Selection for Classification: A Review , 2014, Data Classification: Algorithms and Applications.

[95]  Lionel H. Opie,et al.  Heart Physiology: From Cell to Circulation , 2003 .

[96]  Marek A. Perkowski,et al.  Toward Improving Electrocardiogram (ECG) Biometric Verification using Mobile Sensors: A Two-Stage Classifier Approach , 2017, Sensors.

[97]  Avy An Bui,et al.  A biometric modality based on the seismocardiogram (SCG) , 2015, 2015 International Conference and Workshop on Computing and Communication (IEMCON).

[98]  Haizhou Li,et al.  Detecting Converted Speech and Natural Speech for anti-Spoofing Attack in Speaker Recognition , 2012, INTERSPEECH.

[99]  Jaime S. Cardoso,et al.  Towards a Continuous Biometric System Based on ECG Signals Acquired on the Steering Wheel , 2017, Sensors.

[100]  Satish T. S. Bukkapatnam,et al.  A Low-Cost, Portable, High-Throughput Wireless Sensor System for Phonocardiography Applications , 2012, Sensors.

[101]  Takakazu Ishimatsu,et al.  MEMS and fiber optics sensor-based wearable interface for medical applications , 2005, IEEE Sensors, 2005..

[102]  Naif Alajlan,et al.  Fusion of fingerprint and heartbeat biometrics using fuzzy adaptive genetic algorithm , 2013, World Congress on Internet Security (WorldCIS-2013).

[103]  Kuo-Kun Tseng,et al.  ECG Sensor Card with Evolving RBP Algorithms for Human Verification , 2015, Sensors.

[104]  Charles Sodini,et al.  A continuous, wearable, and wireless heart monitor using head ballistocardiogram (BCG) and head electrocardiogram (ECG) , 2011, 2011 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[105]  Assia Tria,et al.  Fake Fingers in Fingerprint Recognition: Glycerin Supersedes Gelatin , 2009, Formal to Practical Security.

[106]  Juan E. Tapiador,et al.  Real-time electrocardiogram streams for continuous authentication , 2017, Appl. Soft Comput..

[107]  Joseph A. O'Sullivan,et al.  ECG Biometric Recognition: A Comparative Analysis , 2012, IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security.

[108]  Steffen Leonhardt,et al.  Evaluating Innovative In-Ear Pulse Oximetry for Unobtrusive Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Monitoring During Sleep , 2013, IEEE Journal of Translational Engineering in Health and Medicine.

[109]  Dimitrios Hatzinakos,et al.  Analysis of Human Electrocardiogram for Biometric Recognition , 2008, EURASIP J. Adv. Signal Process..

[110]  Tran Huy Dat,et al.  Heart sound as a biometric , 2008, Pattern Recognit..

[111]  Daranee Hormdee,et al.  The comparison between linear regression derivings of 12-lead ECG signals from 5-lead system and EASI-lead system , 2017, 2017 17th International Symposium on Communications and Information Technologies (ISCIT).

[112]  Arye Nehorai,et al.  A Hidden Markov Model for Seismocardiography , 2017, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[113]  Iulian B. Ciocoiu,et al.  Comparative analysis of bag-of-words models for ECG-based biometrics , 2017, IET Biom..

[114]  Udo Sechtem,et al.  A vector-based, 5-electrode, 12-lead monitoring ECG (EASI) is equivalent to conventional 12-lead ECG for diagnosis of acute coronary syndromes. , 2006, Journal of electrocardiology.

[115]  송인성.  A Ultrasound Probe , 2014 .

[116]  Naif Alajlan,et al.  HBS: A Novel Biometric Feature Based on Heartbeat Morphology , 2012, IEEE Transactions on Information Technology in Biomedicine.

[117]  Steffen Leonhardt,et al.  Multi-channel optical sensor-array for measuring ballistocardiograms and respiratory activity in bed , 2012, 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[118]  Vincenzo Piuri,et al.  Deep-ECG: Convolutional Neural Networks for ECG biometric recognition , 2019, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[119]  Mary Ann Weitnauer,et al.  Quantifying and Reducing Posture-Dependent Distortion in Ballistocardiogram Measurements , 2015, IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics.

[120]  Geoffrey E. Hinton,et al.  Deep Learning , 2015, Nature.

[121]  Álvaro Alesanco Iglesias,et al.  Biometric Authentication Using the PPG: A Long-Term Feasibility Study , 2018, Sensors.

[122]  Srinivasan Jayaraman,et al.  Human Electrocardiogram for Biometrics Using DTW and FLDA , 2010, 2010 20th International Conference on Pattern Recognition.

[123]  Hsiao-Lung Chan,et al.  QRS detection-free electrocardiogram biometrics in the reconstructed phase space , 2013, Pattern Recognit. Lett..

[124]  Hervé Bourlard,et al.  Connectionist probability estimators in HMM speech recognition , 1994, IEEE Trans. Speech Audio Process..

[125]  Joseph A. O'Sullivan,et al.  Laser Doppler Vibrometry Measures of Physiological Function: Evaluation of Biometric Capabilities , 2010, IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security.

[126]  U. Rajendra Acharya,et al.  An efficient automated technique for CAD diagnosis using flexible analytic wavelet transform and entropy features extracted from HRV signals , 2016, Expert Syst. Appl..

[127]  A. Roli.  Artificial Neural Networks , 2012, Lecture Notes in Computer Science.

[128]  P. Deepa Shenoy,et al.  Heartbeat biometrics for human authentication , 2011, Signal Image Video Process..

[129]  Christer Ahlström,et al.  Processing of the Phonocardiographic Signal : methods for the intelligent stethoscope , 2006 .

[130]  Ming Li,et al.  Verification based ECG biometrics with cardiac irregular conditions using heartbeat level and segment level information fusion , 2014, 2014 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP).

[131]  Shrikanth S. Narayanan,et al.  Robust ECG Biometrics by Fusing Temporal and Cepstral Information , 2010, 2010 20th International Conference on Pattern Recognition.

[132]  Francesco Beritelli,et al.  Performance evaluation of heart sounds biometric systems on an open dataset , 2013, 2013 18th International Conference on Digital Signal Processing (DSP).

[133]  Dimitrios Hatzinakos,et al.  HeartID: Cardiac biometric recognition , 2010, 2010 Fourth IEEE International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications and Systems (BTAS).

[134]  Steffen Leonhardt,et al.  A Novel 12-Lead ECG T-Shirt with Active Electrodes , 2016 .

[135]  Hong Guo,et al.  Ballistocardiogram-based person identification using correlation analysis , 2013 .

[136]  Mario Konijnenburg,et al.  BiometricNet: Deep Learning based Biometric Identification using Wrist-Worn PPG , 2018, 2018 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS).

[137]  Willis J. Tompkins,et al.  A Real-Time QRS Detection Algorithm , 1985, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[138]  Damon L. Woodard,et al.  On the vulnerability of ECG verification to online presentation attacks , 2017, 2017 IEEE International Joint Conference on Biometrics (IJCB).

[139]  Tapio Seppänen,et al.  Bivariate empirical mode decomposition for ECG-based biometric identification with emotional data , 2017, 2017 39th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC).

[140]  Giuseppe Colicchia,et al.  Phonocardiography with a smartphone , 2017 .

[141]  Purang Abolmaesumi,et al.  Automatic Quality Assessment of Echocardiograms Using Convolutional Neural Networks: Feasibility on the Apical Four-Chamber View , 2017, IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging.

[142]  Arun Ross,et al.  Biometric template security: Challenges and solutions , 2005, 2005 13th European Signal Processing Conference.

[143]  Waltenegus Dargie,et al.  Analysis of Time and Frequency Domain Features of Accelerometer Measurements , 2009, 2009 Proceedings of 18th International Conference on Computer Communications and Networks.

[144]  Phalguni Gupta,et al.  Biometrics Method for Human Identification Using Electrocardiogram , 2009, ICB.

[145]  Y. Mahjoub,et al.  Accuracy of impedance cardiography for evaluating trends in cardiac output: a comparison with oesophageal Doppler. , 2014, British journal of anaesthesia.

[146]  Noah Hafner,et al.  Parametric study of antennas for long range Doppler radar heart rate detection , 2012, 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[147]  Jr. G. Forney,et al.  The viterbi algorithm , 1973 .

[148]  Dimitrios Hatzinakos,et al.  Heart Biometrics: Theory, Methods and Applications , 2011 .

[149]  Mohammed Abo-Zahhad,et al.  Biometric authentication based on PCG and ECG signals: present status and future directions , 2013, Signal, Image and Video Processing.

[150]  Abuagla Babiker,et al.  Heart Sounds Biometric System , 2017 .

[151]  Douglas A. Reynolds,et al.  Gaussian Mixture Models , 2018, Encyclopedia of Biometrics.

[152]  Chun-Liang Lin,et al.  Individual identification based on chaotic electrocardiogram signals during muscular exercise , 2014, IET Biom..

[153]  Huan Liu,et al.  Feature selection for classification: A review , 2014 .

[154]  Hyun-Soo Choi,et al.  Biometric Authentication Using Noisy Electrocardiograms Acquired by Mobile Sensors , 2016, IEEE Access.

[155]  F. Shaffer,et al.  A healthy heart is not a metronome: an integrative review of the heart's anatomy and heart rate variability , 2014, Front. Psychol..

[156]  T. Moon.  The expectation-maximization algorithm , 1996, IEEE Signal Process. Mag..

[157]  Roberto Sassi,et al.  ECG biometric recognition: Permanence analysis of QRS signals for 24 hours continuous authentication , 2013, 2013 IEEE International Workshop on Information Forensics and Security (WIFS).

[158]  G. Marx,et al.  Dynamic Three‐Dimensional Echocardiography: , 1994 .

[159]  Adrian D. C. Chan,et al.  Gating of false identifications in electrocardiogram based biometric system , 2017, 2017 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA).

[160]  O. Postolache,et al.  Theory and Developments in an Unobtrusive Cardiovascular System Representation: Ballistocardiography , 2010, The open biomedical engineering journal.

[161]  Philip Chan,et al.  Toward accurate dynamic time warping in linear time and space , 2007, Intell. Data Anal..

[162]  Wenyao Xu,et al.  Cardiac Scan: A Non-contact and Continuous Heart-based User Authentication System , 2017, MobiCom.

[163]  Enrico Primo Tomasini,et al.  Evaluation of Heart Rate Variability by means of Laser Doppler Vibrometry measurements , 2015 .

[164]  Malina Jordanova,et al.  The International eHealth, Telemedicine and Health ICT Forum for Educational, Networking and Business , 2013 .

[165]  Wael Louis,et al.  Continuous Authentication Using One-Dimensional Multi-Resolution Local Binary Patterns (1DMRLBP) in ECG Biometrics , 2016, IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security.

[166]  Hyunwoo Lee,et al.  An Enhanced Method to Estimate Heart Rate from Seismocardiography via Ensemble Averaging of Body Movements at Six Degrees of Freedom , 2018, Sensors.

[167]  Bessam Abdulrazak,et al.  Continuous and unconstrained vital signs monitoring with ballistocardiogram sensors in headrest position , 2017, 2017 IEEE EMBS International Conference on Biomedical & Health Informatics (BHI).

[168]  Hau-Tieng Wu,et al.  Heart beat classification from single-lead ECG using the synchrosqueezing transform , 2015, Physiological measurement.

[169]  E. P. Tomasini,et al.  The non-contact measure of the heart rate variability by laser Doppler vibrometry: comparison with electrocardiography , 2016 .

[170]  Joseph A. O'Sullivan,et al.  ECG biometrics: A robust short-time frequency analysis , 2010, 2010 IEEE International Workshop on Information Forensics and Security.

[171]  Shweta H. Jambukia,et al.  Classification of ECG signals using machine learning techniques: A survey , 2015, 2015 International Conference on Advances in Computer Engineering and Applications.

[172]  P. Sleight,et al.  Physical activity influences heart rate variability and very-low-frequency components in Holter electrocardiograms. , 1996, Cardiovascular research.

[173]  Mohammed Abo-Zahhad,et al.  A new biometric authentication system using heart sounds based on wavelet packet features , 2015, 2015 IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Circuits, and Systems (ICECS).