Integrating direct observation and GPS tracking to monitor animal behavior for resource management

Monitoring the behavior of pack animals in protected areas informs management about use patterns and the potential associated negative impacts. However, systematic assessments of behavior are uncommon due to methodological and logistical constraints. This study integrated behavior mapping with GPS tracking, and applied behavior change point analysis, as an approach to monitor the behaviors of pack animals during overnight periods. The integrated approach identified multiple grazing patterns (i.e., locally intense grazing, ambulatory grazing) not feasible through a single methodology alone. Monitoring behavior and corresponding environmental conditions aid managers in implementing strategies designed to mitigate impacts associated with pack animals in natural areas. Results also contrast the influence of temporal scale on behavior segmentation to inform decisions for further monitoring and management of domestic animal use and impacts in natural areas. This integrated approach reduced time and logistical constraints of each method individually to promote ongoing monitoring and highlight how multiple management tactics could reduce impacts to sensitive habitats.

[1]  Brian S. Cade,et al.  Quantifying Equid Behavior—A Research Ethogram for Free-Roaming Feral Horses , 2009 .

[2]  Ross Purves,et al.  How fast is a cow? Cross‐Scale Analysis of Movement Data , 2011, Trans. GIS.

[3]  Tal Avgar,et al.  Environmental and individual drivers of animal movement patterns across a wide geographical gradient. , 2013, The Journal of animal ecology.

[4]  M. McClaran,et al.  Packstock in wilderness: use, impacts, monitoring and management. , 1993 .

[5]  Claire M Postlethwaite,et al.  A new multi-scale measure for analysing animal movement data. , 2013, Journal of theoretical biology.

[6]  G. Daily,et al.  Corrigendum: Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity , 2012, Nature.

[7]  J. Wiens.  Spatial Scaling in Ecology , 1989 .

[8]  J. L. Parra,et al.  Impact of a Century of Climate Change on Small-Mammal Communities in Yosemite National Park, USA , 2008, Science.

[9]  Manuel K. Schneider,et al.  Inferring Behavioral States of Grazing Livestock from High-Frequency Position Data Alone , 2014, PloS one.

[10]  W. Hammitt,et al.  Wildland Recreation: Ecology and Management, 3rd edition , 2015 .

[11]  Chelsey Walden-Schreiner,et al.  Spatially Characterizing Visitor Use and Its Association with Informal Trails in Yosemite Valley Meadows , 2013, Environmental Management.

[12]  Toby A Patterson,et al.  Classifying movement behaviour in relation to environmental conditions using hidden Markov models. , 2009, The Journal of animal ecology.

[13]  Eliezer Gurarie,et al.  A novel method for identifying behavioural changes in animal movement data. , 2009, Ecology letters.

[14]  Eliezer Gurarie,et al.  What is the animal doing? Tools for exploring behavioural structure in animal movements. , 2016, The Journal of animal ecology.

[15]  C. Monz,et al.  Is tourism damaging ecosystems in the Andes? Current knowledge and an agenda for future research , 2015, AMBIO.

[16]  Kathleen M. O’Reilly,et al.  Extending the Functionality of Behavioural Change-Point Analysis with k-Means Clustering: A Case Study with the Little Penguin (Eudyptula minor) , 2015, PloS one.

[17]  D. Bailey,et al.  Rotational Grazing Systems and Livestock Grazing Behavior in Shrub-Dominated Semi-Arid and Arid Rangelands , 2011 .

[18]  L. Börger.  EDITORIAL: Stuck in motion? Reconnecting questions and tools in movement ecology. , 2016, The Journal of animal ecology.

[19]  D. Blumstein,et al.  A systematic survey of the integration of animal behavior into conservation , 2016, Conservation biology : the journal of the Society for Conservation Biology.

[20]  S. M. Rutter,et al.  The integration of GPS, vegetation mapping and GIS in ecological and behavioural studies , 2007 .

[21]  Y. Leung,et al.  Environmental and managerial factors associated with pack stock distribution in high elevation meadows: Case study from Yosemite National Park. , 2017, Journal of environmental management.

[22]  M. Hebblewhite,et al.  Distinguishing technology from biology: a critical review of the use of GPS telemetry data in ecology , 2010, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[23]  Niko Balkenhol,et al.  Path segmentation for beginners: an overview of current methods for detecting changes in animal movement patterns , 2016, Movement ecology.

[24]  Christine M. Hoehner,et al.  Parks promoting physical activity: synthesis of findings from interventions in seven national parks. , 2010, Journal of physical activity & health.

[25]  S. Mcdonnell,et al.  Practical field guide to horse behavior: the equid ethogram. , 2003 .

[26]  Brett T McClintock,et al.  When to be discrete: the importance of time formulation in understanding animal movement , 2014, Movement Ecology.

[27]  R. Ohlemüller,et al.  Rapid Range Shifts of Species Associated with High Levels of Climate Warming , 2011, Science.

[28]  Daniel Mills,et al.  The domestic horse: the evolution, development and management of its behaviour. , 2005 .

[29]  M. Heurich,et al.  New Possibilities of Observing Animal Behaviour from a Distance Using Activity Sensors in Gps-Collars: An Attempt to Calibrate Remotely Collected Activity Data with Direct Behavioural Observations in Red Deer Cervus elaphus , 2009 .

[30]  M. Spalding,et al.  Measuring the extent and effectiveness of protected areas as an indicator for meeting global biodiversity targets , 2005, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[31]  Eliezer Gurarie,et al.  Characteristic Spatial and Temporal Scales Unify Models of Animal Movement , 2011, The American Naturalist.

[32]  Kyle G Horton,et al.  An assessment of spatio-temporal relationships between nocturnal bird migration traffic rates and diurnal bird stopover density , 2016, Movement ecology.

[33]  J. Watson,et al.  The performance and potential of protected areas , 2014, Nature.

[34]  Ross Purves,et al.  An approach to evaluating motion pattern detection techniques in spatio-temporal data , 2006, Comput. Environ. Urban Syst..

[35]  S. Levin.  The problem of pattern and scale in ecology , 1992 .

[36]  H. Whitehead,et al.  Interpreting short-term behavioural responses to disturbance within a longitudinal perspective , 2006, Animal Behaviour.

[37]  D. Cole,et al.  Impacts of Camping on Vegetation: Response and Recovery Following Acute and Chronic Disturbance , 2003, Environmental management.

[38]  E. Revilla,et al.  A movement ecology paradigm for unifying organismal movement research , 2008, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[39]  Gregory P. Brown,et al.  Rapid shifts in dispersal behavior on an expanding range edge , 2013, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[40]  D. Haydon,et al.  Multiple movement modes by large herbivores at multiple spatiotemporal scales , 2008, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[41]  Claire M. Postlethwaite,et al.  Effects of Temporal Resolution on an Inferential Model of Animal Movement , 2013, PloS one.

[42]  C. Shepard,et al.  Averting HIV Infections in New York City: A Modeling Approach Estimating the Future Impact of Additional Behavioral and Biomedical HIV Prevention Strategies , 2013, PloS one.

[43]  G. Daily,et al.  Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity , 2012, Nature.

[44]  R. Rossi,et al.  Packhorse grazing behavior and immediate impact on a timberline meadow , 1996 .

[45]  S. M. Evans,et al.  The value of marine ecological data collected by volunteers , 2003 .

[46]  R. Kays,et al.  Terrestrial animal tracking as an eye on life and planet , 2015, Science.

[47]  C. Pickering,et al.  Impacts of experimental trampling by hikers and pack animals on a high-altitude alpine sedge meadow in the Andes , 2015 .

[48]  Davide Geneletti,et al.  Environmental impact assessment of mountain tourism in developing regions: A study in Ladakh, Indian Himalaya , 2009 .

[49]  F. Cagnacci,et al.  Animal ecology meets GPS-based radiotelemetry: a perfect storm of opportunities and challenges , 2010, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[50]  E. Berlow,et al.  Potential environmental effects of pack stock on meadow ecosystems of the Sierra Nevada, USA , 2014 .

[51]  Andrew Balmford,et al.  Walk on the Wild Side: Estimating the Global Magnitude of Visits to Protected Areas , 2015, PLoS biology.

[52]  William F Fagan,et al.  Transient windows for connectivity in a changing world , 2014, Movement Ecology.

[53]  Wen-Chieh Lin,et al.  Real‐time horse gait synthesis , 2013, Comput. Animat. Virtual Worlds.

[54]  Bettina Speckmann,et al.  Moving beyond the point: An agenda for research in movement analysis with real data , 2014, Computers, Environment and Urban Systems.

[55]  David N. Cole,et al.  Wildland Recreation: Ecology and Management , 1990 .

[56]  David M. Williams,et al.  Impact of Habitat-Specific GPS Positional Error on Detection of Movement Scales by First-Passage Time Analysis , 2012, PloS one.

[57]  J. Chave.  The problem of pattern and scale in ecology: what have we learned in 20 years? , 2013, Ecology letters.