U.S. and Canadian Indian Urban Ethnic Institutions.

Indians are the most rural large ethnic group in the United States and Canada, so it is still possible to witness the ongoing process of the formation of their urban ethnic institutions. Four stages are postulated, each dominated by a distinct set of institutions: (1) bar culture cliques and "Indian problem" institutions designed and staffed by social welfare agencies; (2) Indian centers and kinship-friendship networks; (3) common interest associations: athletic, religious, social and political; and (4) advanced institutions that simultaneously serve Indians and the general public: business, academic, and entertainment. Cities such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, Vancouver, and Toronto are into the most advanced stage of institutionalization. The first-stage bar cliques and welfareoriented agencies have declined in importance, servicing only the few arrivals with rural backgrounds. A mature ethnic institutional context can add greatly to the joys of city life. Most cities, however, are still struggling through the difficult early stages, where there are as yet few defenses against discrimination as a pitiable and disorganized minority and no organizational means for creative expression of a unique and proud cultural heritage.