The emergence of Lyme disease.

Since its identification nearly 30 years ago, Lyme disease has continued to spread, and there have been increasing numbers of cases in the northeastern and north central US. The Lyme disease agent, Borrelia burgdorferi, causes infection by migration through tissues, adhesion to host cells, and evasion of immune clearance. Both innate and adaptive immune responses, especially macrophage- and antibody-mediated killing, are required for optimal control of the infection and spirochetal eradication. Ecological conditions favorable to the disease, and the challenge of prevention, predict that Lyme disease will be a continuing public health concern.

[1]  H. Karch,et al.  Intracellular persistence ofBorrelia burgdorferi in human synovial cells , 2005, Rheumatology International.

[2]  T. Schwan,et al.  Outer-surface protein C of the Lyme disease spirochete: a protein induced in ticks for infection of mammals. , 2004, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[3]  Johanna W Lampe,et al.  Antibiotic use in relation to the risk of breast cancer , 2004, JAMA.

[4]  A. Steere,et al.  Elucidation of Lyme arthritis , 2004, Nature Reviews Immunology.

[5]  Heiko Becker,et al.  Complement Resistance of Borrelia burgdorferi Correlates with the Expression of BbCRASP-1, a Novel Linear Plasmid-encoded Surface Protein That Interacts with Human Factor H and FHL-1 and Is Unrelated to Erp Proteins* , 2004, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[6]  E. Fikrig,et al.  OspC facilitates Borrelia burgdorferi invasion of Ixodes scapularis salivary glands. , 2004, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[7]  Thomas R. Riley,et al.  A Randomized Double-blind Placebo-controlled Trial , 2004 .

[8]  A. Steere,et al.  Inflammatory Cytokine Production Predominates in Early Lyme Disease in Patients with Erythema Migrans , 2003, Infection and Immunity.

[9]  M. Hanson,et al.  Progress and controversy surrounding vaccines against Lyme disease , 2003, Expert review of vaccines.

[10]  P. Krause,et al.  Coevolution of Markers of Innate and Adaptive Immunity in Skin and Peripheral Blood of Patients with Erythema Migrans 12 , 2003, The Journal of Immunology.

[11]  A. Steere,et al.  Asymptomatic infection with Borrelia burgdorferi. , 2003, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[12]  V. Blaho,et al.  Susceptibility to Experimental Lyme Arthritis Correlates with KC and Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 Production in Joints and Requires Neutrophil Recruitment Via CXCR21 , 2003, The Journal of Immunology.

[13]  E. Hayes,et al.  How can we prevent Lyme disease? , 2003, The New England journal of medicine.

[14]  A. Steere,et al.  The presenting manifestations of Lyme disease and the outcomes of treatment. , 2003, The New England journal of medicine.

[15]  Q. Fang,et al.  MOLECULAR PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSES INDICATE THAT THE IXODES RICINUS COMPLEX IS A PARAPHYLETIC GROUP , 2003, The Journal of parasitology.

[16]  R. Dornbush,et al.  Duration of Antibiotic Therapy for Early Lyme Disease , 2003, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[17]  S. Norris,et al.  A plasmid‐encoded nicotinamidase (PncA) is essential for infectivity of Borrelia burgdorferi in a mammalian host , 2003, Molecular microbiology.

[18]  A. Steere,et al.  Persistence of the antibody response to the VlsE sixth invariant region (IR6) peptide of Borrelia burgdorferi after successful antibiotic treatment of Lyme disease. , 2003, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[19]  A. Steere,et al.  Serodiagnosis of Lyme Disease by Kinetic Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Using Recombinant VlsE1 or Peptide Antigens of Borrelia burgdorferi Compared with 2-Tiered Testing Using Whole-Cell Lysates , 2003, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[20]  A. Steere,et al.  Prospective study of coinfection in patients with erythema migrans. , 2003, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[21]  A. Steere,et al.  Binding of outer surface protein A and human lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1 peptides to HLA-DR molecules associated with antibiotic treatment-resistant Lyme arthritis. , 2003, Arthritis and rheumatism.

[22]  Felicia Keesing,et al.  The ecology of infectious disease: Effects of host diversity and community composition on Lyme disease risk , 2003, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[23]  A. Steere,et al.  Systemic symptoms without erythema migrans as the presenting picture of early Lyme disease. , 2003, The American journal of medicine.

[24]  R. Kennedy,et al.  OspE-Related, OspF-Related, and Elp Lipoproteins Are Immunogenic in Baboons Experimentally Infected with Borrelia burgdorferi and in Human Lyme Disease Patients , 2002, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[25]  G. Stanek,et al.  Lyme Borreliosis: Biology, Epidemiology and Control , 2002 .

[26]  A. Steere A 58-year-old man with a diagnosis of chronic lyme disease. , 2002, JAMA.

[27]  A. Hassett,et al.  Contributions of societal and geographical environments to "chronic Lyme disease": the psychopathogenesis and aporology of a new "medically unexplained symptoms" syndrome. , 2002, Environmental health perspectives.

[28]  E. Fikrig,et al.  Molecular Adaptation of Borrelia burgdorferi in the Murine Host , 2002, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[29]  S. Wikel,et al.  Changes in Temporal and Spatial Patterns of Outer Surface Lipoprotein Expression Generate Population Heterogeneity and Antigenic Diversity in the Lyme Disease Spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi , 2002, Infection and Immunity.

[30]  H. Kampen,et al.  Seroprevalence of Babesia Infections in Humans Exposed to Ticks in Midwestern Germany , 2002, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[31]  Ruth R. Montgomery,et al.  Human phagocytic cells in the early innate immune response to Borrelia burgdorferi. , 2002, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[32]  S. Telford,et al.  Disease-specific diagnosis of coinfecting tickborne zoonoses: babesiosis, human granulocytic ehrlichiosis, and Lyme disease. , 2002, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[33]  A. Steere,et al.  Clinical Characteristics and Treatment Outcome of Early Lyme Disease in Patients with Microbiologically Confirmed Erythema Migrans , 2002, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[34]  Uriel Kitron,et al.  Predicting the Risk of Lyme Disease: Habitat Suitability for Ixodes scapularis in the North Central United States , 2002, Emerging infectious diseases.

[35]  F. Liang,et al.  An Immune Evasion Mechanism for Spirochetal Persistence in Lyme Borreliosis , 2002, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[36]  S. Etti,et al.  Host association of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato--the key role of host complement. , 2002, Trends in microbiology.

[37]  N. J. Zulqarni,et al.  Overdiagnosis and overtreatment of Lyme disease in children , 2002, The Pediatric infectious disease journal.

[38]  L. Bennet,et al.  Reinfection with Lyme Borreliosis: A Retrospective Follow-up Study in Southern Sweden , 2002, Scandinavian journal of infectious diseases.

[39]  R. Massung,et al.  Human Granulocytic Ehrlichiosis as a Common Cause of Tick-associated Fever in Southeast Sweden: Report from a Prospective Clinical Study , 2002, Scandinavian journal of infectious diseases.

[40]  E. Korenberg,et al.  Ecology of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in Russia. , 2002 .

[41]  A. Steere,et al.  Cellular and Humoral Immune Responses toBorrelia burgdorferi Antigens in Patients with Culture-Positive Early Lyme Disease , 2001, Infection and Immunity.

[42]  B K Szymanski,et al.  Lyme disease in New York State: spatial pattern at a regional scale. , 2001, The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene.

[43]  R Ruthazer,et al.  Persistence of immunoglobulin M or immunoglobulin G antibody responses to Borrelia burgdorferi 10-20 years after active Lyme disease. , 2001, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[44]  C H Schmid,et al.  Two controlled trials of antibiotic treatment in patients with persistent symptoms and a history of Lyme disease. , 2001, The New England journal of medicine.

[45]  R. Marcus,et al.  Prophylaxis with single-dose doxycycline for the prevention of Lyme disease after an Ixodes scapularis tick bite. , 2001, The New England journal of medicine.

[46]  M. Hotopf,et al.  Medically unexplained symptoms: an epidemiological study in seven specialities. , 2001, Journal of psychosomatic research.

[47]  E. Dobrikova,et al.  Genetic manipulation of spirochetes--light at the end of the tunnel. , 2001, Trends in microbiology.

[48]  A. Steere,et al.  Molecular Mimicry in Lyme Arthritis Demonstrated at the Single Cell Level: LFA-1αL Is a Partial Agonist for Outer Surface Protein A-Reactive T Cells1 , 2001, The Journal of Immunology.

[49]  Jeffrey Talkington,et al.  Role of Fc Gamma Receptors in Triggering Host Cell Activation and Cytokine Release by Borrelia burgdorferi , 2001, Infection and Immunity.

[50]  Maria Labandeira-Rey,et al.  Decreased Infectivity in Borrelia burgdorferi Strain B31 Is Associated with Loss of Linear Plasmid 25 or 28-1 , 2001, Infection and Immunity.

[51]  H. Kerl,et al.  Differential expression of cytokine mRNA in skin specimens from patients with erythema migrans or acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans. , 2000, The Journal of investigative dermatology.

[52]  R. Lane,et al.  A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MAMMALIAN AND REPTILIAN ALTERNATIVE PATHWAY OF COMPLEMENT-MEDIATED KILLING OF THE LYME DISEASE SPIROCHETE (BORRELIA BURGDORFERI) , 2000, The Journal of parasitology.

[53]  W. Edwards,et al.  Death from inappropriate therapy for Lyme disease. , 2000, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[54]  T. Burkot,et al.  Borrelia Isolates in Northern Colorado Identified as Borrelia bissettii , 2000, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[55]  A. Steere,et al.  Practice guidelines for the treatment of Lyme disease. The Infectious Diseases Society of America. , 2000, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[56]  J. Posey,et al.  Lack of a role for iron in the Lyme disease pathogen. , 2000, Science.

[57]  J. Leong,et al.  Identification of a candidate glycosaminoglycan‐binding adhesin of the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi , 2000, Molecular microbiology.

[58]  O. White,et al.  A bacterial genome in flux: the twelve linear and nine circular extrachromosomal DNAs in an infectious isolate of the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi , 2000, Molecular microbiology.

[59]  T. Schwan,et al.  Temporal Changes in Outer Surface Proteins A and C of the Lyme Disease-Associated Spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi, during the Chain of Infection in Ticks and Mice , 2000, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[60]  Ennis,et al.  Vaccination against Lyme Disease with Recombinant Borrelia burgdorferi Outer-Surface Lipoprotein A with Adjuvant , 2000 .

[61]  S. Barthold,et al.  Immunity and Resolution of Lyme Disease Are Critical for Protective burgdorferi Borrelia T-Cell-Independent Responses to , 2000 .

[62]  S. Bodary,et al.  Characterization of a candidate Borrelia burgdorferiβ3‐chain integrin ligand identified using a phage display library , 1999, Molecular microbiology.

[63]  A. Steere,et al.  Lack of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA in synovial samples from patients with antibiotic treatment-resistant Lyme arthritis. , 1999, Arthritis and rheumatism.

[64]  R. M. Wooten,et al.  Dual Role of Interleukin-10 in Murine Lyme Disease: Regulation of Arthritis Severity and Host Defense , 1999, Infection and Immunity.

[65]  A. Steere,et al.  Association of antibiotic treatment-resistant Lyme arthritis with T cell responses to dominant epitopes of outer surface protein A of Borrelia burgdorferi. , 1999, Arthritis and rheumatism.

[66]  D. Dykhuizen,et al.  Four Clones of Borrelia burgdorferiSensu Stricto Cause Invasive Infection in Humans , 1999, Infection and Immunity.

[67]  R. Nadelman,et al.  Comparison of Culture-Confirmed Erythema Migrans Caused by Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto in New York State and by Borrelia afzelii in Slovenia , 1999, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[68]  A. Steere,et al.  The Immunoglobulin (IgG) Antibody Response to OspA and OspB Correlates with Severe and Prolonged Lyme Arthritis and the IgG Response to P35 Correlates with Mild and Brief Arthritis , 1999, Infection and Immunity.

[69]  Barbara J. B. Johnson,et al.  Identification of a 47 kDa fibronectin‐binding protein expressed by Borrelia burgdorferi isolate B31 , 1998, Molecular microbiology.

[70]  E. Fikrig,et al.  Borrelia burgdorferi-infected, interleukin-6-deficient mice have decreased Th2 responses and increased lyme arthritis. , 1998, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[71]  B. P. Guo,et al.  Decorin‐binding adhesins from Borrelia burgdorferi , 1998, Molecular microbiology.

[72]  E. Hilton,et al.  Psychological factors in the prediction of Lyme disease course. , 1998, Arthritis care and research : the official journal of the Arthritis Health Professions Association.

[73]  R. Schell,et al.  Borreliacidal antibody production against outer surface protein C of Borrelia burgdorferi. , 1998, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[74]  S. Norris,et al.  Genetic Variation of the Borrelia burgdorferi Gene vlsE Involves Cassette-Specific, Segmental Gene Conversion , 1998, Infection and Immunity.

[75]  A. Steere,et al.  Identification of LFA-1 as a candidate autoantigen in treatment-resistant Lyme arthritis. , 1998, Science.

[76]  C. Schmid,et al.  Vaccination against Lyme disease with recombinant Borrelia burgdorferi outer-surface lipoprotein A with adjuvant. Lyme Disease Vaccine Study Group. , 1998, The New England journal of medicine.

[77]  B. P. Guo,et al.  Active and Passive Immunity against Borrelia burgdorferi Decorin Binding Protein A (DbpA) Protects against Infection , 1998, Infection and Immunity.

[78]  P. Oschmann,et al.  Stages and syndromes of neuroborreliosis , 1998, Journal of Neurology.

[79]  R. Horwitz,et al.  The Consequences of Overdiagnosis and Overtreatment of Lyme Disease: An Observational Study , 1998, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[80]  J. Coburn,et al.  Different Classes of Proteoglycans Contribute to the Attachment of Borrelia burgdorferi to Cultured Endothelial and Brain Cells , 1998, Infection and Immunity.

[81]  S. Salzberg,et al.  Genomic sequence of a Lyme disease spirochaete, Borrelia burgdorferi , 1997, Nature.

[82]  T. Bugge,et al.  Plasminogen Is Required for Efficient Dissemination of B. burgdorferi in Ticks and for Enhancement of Spirochetemia in Mice , 1997, Cell.

[83]  E. Fikrig,et al.  Borrelia burgdorferi P35 and P37 proteins, expressed in vivo, elicit protective immunity. , 1997, Immunity.

[84]  R. Würzner,et al.  Heterogeneity in the complement-dependent bacteriolysis within the species of Borrelia burgdorferi , 1997, Medical Microbiology and Immunology.

[85]  R. Pollack,et al.  Concurrent Lyme disease and babesiosis. Evidence for increased severity and duration of illness. , 1996, JAMA.

[86]  S. Norris,et al.  Modulation of immunity to Borrelia burgdorferi by ultraviolet irradiation: Differential effect on Th1 and Th2 immune responses , 1995, European journal of immunology.

[87]  A. Keane-Myers,et al.  T cell subset-dependent modulation of immunity to Borrelia burgdorferi in mice. , 1995, Journal of immunology.

[88]  D. Dennis,et al.  Biliary complications in the treatment of unsubstantiated Lyme disease. , 1995, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[89]  A. Spielman The Emergence of Lyme Disease and Human Babesiosis in a Changing Environment a , 1994, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[90]  C. Schmid,et al.  Treatment of Lyme arthritis. , 1994, Arthritis and rheumatism.

[91]  U. Schaible,et al.  Killing of Borrelia burgdorferi by macrophages is dependent on oxygen radicals and nitric oxide and can be enhanced by antibodies to outer surface proteins of the spirochete. , 1994, Immunology letters.

[92]  A. Steere,et al.  Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA by polymerase chain reaction in synovial fluid from patients with Lyme arthritis. , 1994, The New England journal of medicine.

[93]  A. Steere,et al.  The overdiagnosis of Lyme disease. , 1993, JAMA.

[94]  A. Steere,et al.  Western blotting in the serodiagnosis of Lyme disease. , 1993, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[95]  N. Pavlović,et al.  [Epidemiology of Lyme borreliosis]. , 1993, Glas. Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti. Odeljenje medicinskih nauka.

[96]  Jean Côté,et al.  Lyme Disease , 1991, International journal of dermatology.

[97]  U. Wurster,et al.  Chronic neurologic manifestations of Lyme disease. , 1991, The New England journal of medicine.

[98]  P. Duray Clinical pathologic correlations of Lyme disease. , 1989, Reviews of infectious diseases.

[99]  A. Steere Medical progress. Lyme disease , 1989 .

[100]  P. Duray,et al.  Clinical Pathologic Correlations of Lyme Disease by Stage , 1988, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[101]  A. Steere,et al.  The clinical evolution of Lyme arthritis. , 1987, Annals of internal medicine.

[102]  A. Steere,et al.  The early clinical manifestations of Lyme disease. , 1983, Annals of internal medicine.

[103]  J. Enders,et al.  Infectious Diseases Society of America. , 1969, Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy.