Acetaldehyde production by major oral microbes.

OBJECTIVES To assess acetaldehyde (ACH) production by bacteria constituting the oral microbiota and the inhibitory effects of sugar alcohols on ACH production. MATERIALS AND METHODS The predominant bacterial components of the salivary microbiota of 166 orally healthy subjects were determined by barcoded pyrosequencing analysis of the 16S rRNA gene. Bacterial ACH production from ethanol or glucose was measured using gas chromatography. In addition, inhibition by four sugars and five sugar alcohols of ACH production was assayed. RESULTS Forty-one species from 16 genera were selected as predominant and prevalent bacteria based on the following criteria: identification in ≥95% of the subjects, ≥1% of mean relative abundance or ≥5% of maximum relative abundance. All Neisseria species tested produced conspicuous amounts of ACH from ethanol, as did Rothia mucilaginosa, Streptococcus mitis and Prevotella histicola exhibited the ability to produce ACH. In addition, xylitol and sorbitol inhibited ACH production by Neisseria mucosa by more than 90%. CONCLUSIONS The oral microbiota of orally healthy subjects comprises considerable amounts of bacteria possessing the ability to produce ACH, an oral carcinogen. Consumption of sugar alcohols may regulate ACH production by oral microbes.

[1]  W. Ahrens,et al.  Oral health, dental care and mouthwash associated with upper aerodigestive tract cancer risk in Europe: the ARCAGE study. , 2014, Oral oncology.

[2]  M. Salaspuro,et al.  High acetaldehyde levels in saliva after ethanol consumption: methodological aspects and pathogenetic implications. , 1997, Carcinogenesis.

[3]  Witold Zatonski,et al.  Alcohol drinking in never users of tobacco, cigarette smoking in never drinkers, and the risk of head and neck cancer: pooled analysis in the International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium. , 2007, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[4]  W E Moore,et al.  The bacteria of periodontal diseases. , 1994, Periodontology 2000.

[5]  Y. Shimazaki,et al.  Enteral Tube Feeding Alters the Oral Indigenous Microbiota in Elderly Adults , 2011, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[6]  M. Salaspuro,et al.  Role of yeasts in the salivary acetaldehyde production from ethanol among risk groups for ethanol-associated oral cavity cancer. , 1999, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[7]  K. Straif,et al.  A review of human carcinogens--Part E: tobacco, areca nut, alcohol, coal smoke, and salted fish. , 2009, The Lancet. Oncology.

[8]  C. Lieber,et al.  Oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde by bronchopulmonary washings: role of bacteria. , 1986, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[9]  H. Sasaki,et al.  Acetaldehyde production by non‐pathogenic Neisseria in human oral microflora: Implications for carcinogenesis in upper aerodigestive tract , 2000, International journal of cancer.

[10]  R. Rautemaa,et al.  Xylitol inhibits carcinogenic acetaldehyde production by Candida species , 2011, International journal of cancer.

[11]  Wen-Han Yu,et al.  The Human Oral Microbiome Database: a web accessible resource for investigating oral microbe taxonomic and genomic information , 2010, Database J. Biol. Databases Curation.

[12]  P. J. Brooks,et al.  Polyamines stimulate the formation of mutagenic 1,N2-propanodeoxyguanosine adducts from acetaldehyde , 2005, Nucleic acids research.

[13]  M. Salaspuro,et al.  Synergistic effect of alcohol drinking and smoking on in vivo acetaldehyde concentration in saliva , 2004, International journal of cancer.

[14]  J. A. Aas,et al.  Defining the Normal Bacterial Flora of the Oral Cavity , 2005, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[15]  T. Ninomiya,et al.  Distinct composition of the oral indigenous microbiota in South Korean and Japanese adults , 2014, Scientific Reports.

[16]  L. Tao,et al.  Multiple alcohol dehydrogenases but no functional acetaldehyde dehydrogenase causing excessive acetaldehyde production from ethanol by oral streptococci. , 2013, Microbiology.

[17]  R. Roine,et al.  Increased acetaldehyde production by mouthwashings from patients with oral cavity, laryngeal, or pharyngeal cancer. , 1996, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[18]  Diana Anderson,et al.  Genetic effects of ethanol , 1987 .

[19]  W. Wade,et al.  Effect of rinsing with ethanol-containing mouthrinses on the production of salivary acetaldehyde. , 2011, European journal of oral sciences.

[20]  R. Rautemaa,et al.  Chronic candidosis and oral cancer in APECED‐patients: Production of carcinogenic acetaldehyde from glucose and ethanol by Candida albicans , 2009, International journal of cancer.

[21]  D. Zero,et al.  Fluoride Concentrations in Plaque, Whole Saliva, and Ductal Saliva After Application of Home-use Topical Fluorides , 1992, Journal of dental research.

[22]  J. Meurman,et al.  Poor dental status increases acetaldehyde production from ethanol in saliva: a possible link to increased oral cancer risk among heavy drinkers. , 2001, Oral oncology.

[23]  C. Yen,et al.  Investigating the association between oral hygiene and head and neck cancer. , 2013, Oral oncology.

[24]  C. la Vecchia,et al.  Epidemiology and prevention of oral cancer. , 1997, Oral oncology.

[25]  M. Salaspuro.  Alcohol consumption and cancer of the gastrointestinal tract. , 2003, Best practice & research. Clinical gastroenterology.

[26]  R. Rautemaa,et al.  Acetaldehyde production from ethanol and glucose by non-Candida albicans yeasts in vitro. , 2009, Oral oncology.

[27]  J. Meurman,et al.  Acetaldehyde production from ethanol by oral streptococci. , 2007, Oral oncology.

[28]  V. Dellarco.  A mutagenicity assessment of acetaldehyde. , 1988, Mutation research.