Podophyllotoxin acetate triggers anticancer effects against non-small cell lung cancer cells by promoting cell death via cell cycle arrest, ER stress and autophagy

We previously reported that podophyllotoxin acetate (PA) radiosensitizes NCI-H460 cells. Here, we confirmed that PA treatment also induces cell death among two other non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines: NCI-H1299 and A549 cells (IC50 values = 7.6 and 16.1 nM, respectively). Our experiments further showed that PA treatment was able to induce cell death via various mechanisms. First, PA dose-dependently induced cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase, as shown by accumulation of the mitosis-related proteins, p21, survivin and Aurora B. This G2/M phase arrest was due to the PA-induced inhibition of microtubule polymerization. Together, the decreased microtubule polymerization and increased cell cycle arrest induced DNA damage (reflected by accumulation of γ-H2AX) and triggered the induction of intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways, as shown by the time-dependent activations of caspase-3, -8 and -9. Second, PA time-dependently activated the pro-apoptotic ER stress pathway, as evidenced by increased expression levels of BiP, CHOP, IRE1-α, phospho-PERK, and phospho-JNK. Third, PA activated autophagy, as reflected by time-dependent increases in the expression levels of beclin-1, Atg3, Atg5 and Atg7, and the cleavage of LC3. Collectively, these results suggest a model wherein PA decreases microtubule polymerization and increases cell cycle arrest, thereby inducing apoptotic cell death via the activation of DNA damage, ER stress and autophagy.