The endeavour to advance graphene–semiconductor composite-based photocatalysis

Graphene (GR)–semiconductor composite-based photocatalytic systems have received ever-increasing attention due to the attractive possibilities they provide to alleviate environmental and energy issues. Extensive endeavours have been made to construct high-performance GR–semiconductor composite photocatalysts for solar energy conversion. In this review, recent advances in developing strategies to assemble efficient GR–semiconductor composite photocatalysts are highlighted. These advances can be mainly classified into three aspects. The first is the optimization of individual components, including maximization of the functions of graphene and optimization of the photoactive semiconductors. The second is interface engineering between graphene and semiconductors. The third is the design and optimization of GR–semiconductor composite photocatalysts from a system-level consideration. Finally, it is proposed that combining these advances together with theoretical investigations will take us further along the road to advancing GR–semiconductor composite-based photocatalysis. Truly smart GR–semiconductor composite photocatalysts with robust structural and functional infrastructure are anticipated to be forthcoming.

[1]  Zhaoyang Fan,et al.  Comparing graphene-TiO₂ nanowire and graphene-TiO₂ nanoparticle composite photocatalysts. , 2012, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[2]  N. Zhang,et al.  Promoting Visible‐Light Photocatalysis with Palladium Species as Cocatalyst , 2015 .

[3]  Chuncheng Chen,et al.  Visible-light-induced aerobic oxidation of alcohols in a coupled photocatalytic system of dye-sensitized TiO2 and TEMPO. , 2008, Angewandte Chemie.

[4]  B. Liu,et al.  Bridging the Gap: Electron Relay and Plasmonic Sensitization of Metal Nanocrystals for Metal Clusters. , 2015, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[5]  Yi‐Jun Xu,et al.  Improving the visible light photoactivity of In2S3-graphene nanocomposite via a simple surface charge modification approach. , 2013, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[6]  Layer-by-Layer Assembly for Graphene-Based Multilayer Nanocomposites: Synthesis and Applications , 2015 .

[7]  Lan Yuan,et al.  Tuning the surface charge of graphene for self-assembly synthesis of a SnNb2O6 nanosheet-graphene (2D-2D) nanocomposite with enhanced visible light photoactivity. , 2014, Nanoscale.

[8]  B. Liu,et al.  Layer-by-layer self-assembly of CdS quantum dots/graphene nanosheets hybrid films for photoelectrochemical and photocatalytic applications. , 2014, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[9]  F. Gao,et al.  Engineering the TiO2 -graphene interface to enhance photocatalytic H2 production. , 2014, ChemSusChem.

[10]  Lianzhou Wang,et al.  Titania-based photocatalysts—crystal growth, doping and heterostructuring , 2010 .

[11]  Jiaguo Yu,et al.  Highly efficient visible-light-driven photocatalytic hydrogen production of CdS-cluster-decorated graphene nanosheets. , 2011, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[12]  Prashant V Kamat,et al.  Graphitic design: prospects of graphene-based nanocomposites for solar energy conversion, storage, and sensing. , 2013, Accounts of chemical research.

[13]  T. Valdés-Solís,et al.  Shape and size effects of ZnO nanocrystals on photocatalytic activity. , 2009, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[14]  Liming Shen,et al.  Hydrothermal Splitting of Titanate Fibers to Single-Crystalline TiO2 Nanostructures with Controllable Crystalline Phase, Morphology, Microstructure, and Photocatalytic Activity , 2008 .

[15]  Xianzhi Fu,et al.  Engineering the unique 2D mat of graphene to achieve graphene-TiO2 nanocomposite for photocatalytic selective transformation: what advantage does graphene have over its forebear carbon nanotube? , 2011, ACS nano.

[16]  A. Govindaraj,et al.  Graphene: the new two-dimensional nanomaterial. , 2009, Angewandte Chemie.

[17]  Andre K. Geim,et al.  Electric Field Effect in Atomically Thin Carbon Films , 2004, Science.

[18]  Gero Decher,et al.  Fuzzy Nanoassemblies: Toward Layered Polymeric Multicomposites , 1997 .

[19]  A. Xu,et al.  Highly Durable N-Doped Graphene/CdS Nanocomposites with Enhanced Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution from Water under Visible Light Irradiation , 2011 .

[20]  N. Zhang,et al.  A critical and benchmark comparison on graphene-, carbon nanotube-, and fullerene-semiconductor nanocomposites as visible light photocatalysts for selective oxidation , 2013 .

[21]  Wenguang Tu,et al.  Versatile Graphene‐Promoting Photocatalytic Performance of Semiconductors: Basic Principles, Synthesis, Solar Energy Conversion, and Environmental Applications , 2013 .

[22]  N. Zhang,et al.  New insight into the enhanced visible light photocatalytic activity over boron-doped reduced graphene oxide. , 2015, Nanoscale.

[23]  H. García,et al.  Carbocatalysis by graphene-based materials. , 2014, Chemical reviews.

[24]  N. Zhang,et al.  Graphene Oxide as a Surfactant and Support for In-Situ Synthesis of Au–Pd Nanoalloys with Improved Visible Light Photocatalytic Activity , 2014 .

[25]  Richard Van Noorden.  Chemistry: The trials of new carbon , 2011, Nature.

[26]  J. Zhong,et al.  Enhanced photocatalytic activities of three-dimensional graphene-based aerogel embedding TiO2 nanoparticles and loading MoS2 nanosheets as Co-catalyst , 2014 .

[27]  Tae Kyu Kim,et al.  Self-assembled macro porous ZnS–graphene aerogels for photocatalytic degradation of contaminants in water , 2015 .

[28]  N. Zhang,et al.  Synthesis of fullerene-, carbon nanotube-, and graphene-TiO₂ nanocomposite photocatalysts for selective oxidation: a comparative study. , 2013, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[29]  E. Saiz,et al.  Joule Heating Characteristics of Emulsion‐Templated Graphene Aerogels , 2015 .

[30]  M. Xing,et al.  Mesoporous TiO2 nanocrystals grown in situ on graphene aerogels for high photocatalysis and lithium-ion batteries. , 2014, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[31]  Yanhui Zhang,et al.  Size effect induced activity enhancement and anti-photocorrosion of reduced graphene oxide/ZnO composites for degradation of organic dyes and reduction of Cr(VI) in water , 2013 .

[32]  G. Ho,et al.  Green chemistry synthesis of a nanocomposite graphene hydrogel with three-dimensional nano-mesopores for photocatalytic H2 production , 2013 .

[33]  N. Zhang,et al.  Toward improving the graphene-semiconductor composite photoactivity via the addition of metal ions as generic interfacial mediator. , 2014, ACS nano.

[34]  Xiaoqiang An,et al.  Graphene-based photocatalytic composites , 2011 .

[35]  N. Zhang,et al.  Selective oxidation of benzyl alcohol over TiO2 nanosheets with exposed {0 0 1} facets: Catalyst deactivation and regeneration , 2013 .

[36]  Jiaguo Yu,et al.  Graphene-Based Photocatalysts for Hydrogen Generation. , 2013, The journal of physical chemistry letters.

[37]  J. Coleman.  Liquid exfoliation of defect-free graphene. , 2013, Accounts of chemical research.

[38]  Prashant V. Kamat,et al.  Is Graphene a Stable Platform for Photocatalysis? Mineralization of Reduced Graphene Oxide With UV-Irradiated TiO2 Nanoparticles , 2014 .

[39]  N. Zhang,et al.  Enhancing the visible light photocatalytic performance of ternary CdS–(graphene–Pd) nanocomposites via a facile interfacial mediator and co-catalyst strategy , 2014 .

[40]  Ling Zang,et al.  Oxygen atom transfer in the photocatalytic oxidation of alcohols by TiO2: oxygen isotope studies. , 2009, Angewandte Chemie.

[41]  G. Shi,et al.  Graphene based catalysts , 2012 .

[42]  Guoxiu Wang,et al.  Advances in graphene-based semiconductor photocatalysts for solar energy conversion: fundamentals and materials engineering. , 2015, Nanoscale.

[43]  Shaojun Dong,et al.  Three-dimensional Pt-on-Pd bimetallic nanodendrites supported on graphene nanosheet: facile synthesis and used as an advanced nanoelectrocatalyst for methanol oxidation. , 2010, ACS nano.

[44]  E. Giannelis,et al.  Multifunctional graphene/platinum/Nafion hybrids via ice templating. , 2011, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[45]  Yi‐Jun Xu,et al.  Toward improving the photocatalytic activity of BiVO4–graphene 2D–2D composites under visible light by the addition of mediator , 2014 .

[46]  N. Zhang,et al.  Synthesis of graphene–ZnO nanorod nanocomposites with improved photoactivity and anti-photocorrosion , 2013 .

[47]  Yi‐Jun Xu,et al.  Electrostatic self-assembly of CdS nanowires-nitrogen doped graphene nanocomposites for enhanced visible light photocatalysis , 2015 .

[48]  Kai Zhang,et al.  Graphene‐Based Materials for Hydrogen Generation from Light‐Driven Water Splitting , 2013, Advanced materials.

[49]  H. Yang,et al.  Crystal shape engineering of anatase TiO2 and its biomedical applications , 2015 .

[50]  H. Kitano.  Systems Biology: A Brief Overview , 2002, Science.

[51]  L. Dai.  Functionalization of graphene for efficient energy conversion and storage. , 2013, Accounts of chemical research.

[52]  I. Aksay,et al.  Graphene materials and their use in dye-sensitized solar cells. , 2014, Chemical reviews.

[53]  Caruso,et al.  Nanoengineering of inorganic and hybrid hollow spheres by colloidal templating , 1998, Science.

[54]  P. Kamat.  Graphene-Based Nanoassemblies for Energy Conversion , 2011 .

[55]  Jing Kong,et al.  Photocatalytic patterning and modification of graphene. , 2011, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[56]  Yi‐Jun Xu,et al.  Improving the photocatalytic activity and anti-photocorrosion of semiconductor ZnO by coupling with versatile carbon. , 2014, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[57]  N. Zhang,et al.  Waltzing with the Versatile Platform of Graphene to Synthesize Composite Photocatalysts. , 2015, Chemical reviews.

[58]  A. Krasheninnikov,et al.  Structural defects in graphene. , 2011, ACS nano.

[59]  S. Sathaye,et al.  Development of a novel method to grow mono-/few-layered MoS2 films and MoS2–graphene hybrid films for supercapacitor applications , 2014 .

[60]  N. Zhang,et al.  Recent progress on graphene-based photocatalysts: current status and future perspectives. , 2012, Nanoscale.

[61]  Yi‐Jun Xu,et al.  Morphology control, defect engineering and photoactivity tuning of ZnO crystals by graphene oxide--a unique 2D macromolecular surfactant. , 2014, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[62]  J. Coleman,et al.  High-yield production of graphene by liquid-phase exfoliation of graphite. , 2008, Nature nanotechnology.

[63]  T. Maiyalagan,et al.  Review on Recent Progress in Nitrogen-Doped Graphene: Synthesis, Characterization, and Its Potential Applications , 2012 .

[64]  Xianzhi Fu,et al.  TiO2-graphene nanocomposites for gas-phase photocatalytic degradation of volatile aromatic pollutant: is TiO2-graphene truly different from other TiO2-carbon composite materials? , 2010, ACS nano.

[65]  Ping Wang,et al.  Progress in graphene-based photoactive nanocomposites as a promising class of photocatalyst. , 2012, Nanoscale.

[66]  F. Sordello,et al.  Tuning TiO2 nanoparticle morphology in graphene-TiO2 hybrids by graphene surface modification. , 2014, Nanoscale.

[67]  R. Ruoff,et al.  From conception to realization: an historial account of graphene and some perspectives for its future. , 2010, Angewandte Chemie.

[68]  H. Dau,et al.  Principles, efficiency, and blueprint character of solar-energy conversion in photosynthetic water oxidation. , 2009, Accounts of chemical research.

[69]  Daoben Zhu,et al.  Chemical doping of graphene , 2011 .

[70]  Fenghua Li,et al.  A carbon-based photocatalyst efficiently converts CO2 to CH4 and C2H2 under visible light , 2014 .

[71]  Ping Yang,et al.  TiO₂ nanoparticles-functionalized N-doped graphene with superior interfacial contact and enhanced charge separation for photocatalytic hydrogen generation. , 2014, ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces.

[72]  Lan Yuan,et al.  Photocatalytic conversion of CO2 into value-added and renewable fuels , 2015 .

[73]  Jincheng Liu,et al.  High quality graphene oxide-CdS-Pt nanocomposites for efficient photocatalytic hydrogen evolution† , 2012 .

[74]  Francisco del Monte,et al.  Three dimensional macroporous architectures and aerogels built of carbon nanotubes and/or graphene: synthesis and applications. , 2013, Chemical Society reviews.

[75]  Jean-Marie Tarascon,et al.  Towards systems materials engineering. , 2012, Nature materials.

[76]  Scott S. Verbridge,et al.  Electromechanical Resonators from Graphene Sheets , 2007, Science.

[77]  G. Palmisano,et al.  Nanostructured rutile TiO2 for selective photocatalytic oxidation of aromatic alcohols to aldehydes in water. , 2008, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[78]  Can Li,et al.  Spatial separation of photogenerated electrons and holes among {010} and {110} crystal facets of BiVO4 , 2013, Nature Communications.

[79]  Dongxue Han,et al.  Convenient Recycling of 3D AgX/Graphene Aerogels (X = Br, Cl) for Efficient Photocatalytic Degradation of Water Pollutants , 2015, Advanced materials.

[80]  G. Shi,et al.  Three-dimensional graphene architectures. , 2012, Nanoscale.

[81]  R. Kaner,et al.  Honeycomb carbon: a review of graphene. , 2010, Chemical reviews.

[82]  N. Zhang,et al.  Progress on Graphene-Based Composite Photocatalysts for Selective Organic Synthesis , 2013 .

[83]  J. Coleman,et al.  Liquid phase production of graphene by exfoliation of graphite in surfactant/water solutions , 2008, 0809.2690.

[84]  Nan Zhang,et al.  Hierarchically CdS Decorated 1D ZnO Nanorods‐2D Graphene Hybrids: Low Temperature Synthesis and Enhanced Photocatalytic Performance , 2015 .

[85]  Yunqi Liu,et al.  Controllable Synthesis of Graphene and Its Applications , 2010, Advanced materials.

[86]  Nan Zhang,et al.  Artificial photosynthesis over graphene-semiconductor composites. Are we getting better? , 2014, Chemical Society reviews.

[87]  Nan Zhang,et al.  Improving the photocatalytic performance of graphene-TiO2 nanocomposites via a combined strategy of decreasing defects of graphene and increasing interfacial contact. , 2012, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[88]  Angelo Albini,et al.  Photocatalysis. A multi-faceted concept for green chemistry. , 2009, Chemical Society reviews.

[89]  Liang Fang,et al.  Controllable N-doping of graphene. , 2010, Nano letters.

[90]  N. Zhang,et al.  Graphene transforms wide band gap ZnS to a visible light photocatalyst. The new role of graphene as a macromolecular photosensitizer. , 2012, ACS nano.

[91]  D. Eder.  Carbon nanotube-inorganic hybrids. , 2010, Chemical reviews.

[92]  Fang‐Xing Xiao.  Layer-by-Layer Self-Assembly Construction of Highly Ordered Metal-TiO2 Nanotube Arrays Heterostructures (M/TNTs, M = Au, Ag, Pt) with Tunable Catalytic Activities , 2012 .

[93]  Zhongfang Chen,et al.  Curved pi-conjugation, aromaticity, and the related chemistry of small fullerenes (< C60) and single-walled carbon nanotubes. , 2005, Chemical reviews.

[94]  Siqi Liu,et al.  One-dimension-based spatially ordered architectures for solar energy conversion. , 2015, Chemical Society reviews.

[95]  Hui‐Ming Cheng,et al.  Three-dimensional flexible and conductive interconnected graphene networks grown by chemical vapour deposition. , 2011, Nature materials.

[96]  M. Jaroniec,et al.  Graphene-based semiconductor photocatalysts. , 2012, Chemical Society Reviews.

[97]  Yunhao Lu,et al.  Electrostatic self-assembly of BiVO4-reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites for highly efficient visible light photocatalytic activities. , 2014, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[98]  Mark C Hersam,et al.  Minimizing graphene defects enhances titania nanocomposite-based photocatalytic reduction of CO2 for improved solar fuel production. , 2011, Nano letters.

[99]  N. Zhang,et al.  Nanochemistry-derived Bi2WO6 nanostructures: towards production of sustainable chemicals and fuels induced by visible light. , 2014, Chemical Society reviews.

[100]  Da Chen,et al.  Graphene-based materials in electrochemistry. , 2010, Chemical Society reviews.

[101]  Chan Beum Park,et al.  Highly Photoactive, Low Bandgap TiO2 Nanoparticles Wrapped by Graphene , 2012, Advanced materials.

[102]  Peng Wang,et al.  Origin of the catalytic activity of graphite nitride for the electrochemical reduction of oxygen: geometric factors vs. electronic factors. , 2009, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[103]  Yi‐Jun Xu,et al.  Constructing one-dimensional silver nanowire-doped reduced graphene oxide integrated with CdS nanowire network hybrid structures toward artificial photosynthesis. , 2015, Nanoscale.

[104]  Darren Delai Sun,et al.  Self‐Assembling TiO2 Nanorods on Large Graphene Oxide Sheets at a Two‐Phase Interface and Their Anti‐Recombination in Photocatalytic Applications , 2010 .

[105]  Debabrata Pradhan,et al.  Synergy of low-energy {101} and high-energy {001} TiO₂ crystal facets for enhanced photocatalysis. , 2013, ACS nano.

[106]  Chi-Te Liang,et al.  Synthesis of graphene-ZnO-Au nanocomposites for efficient photocatalytic reduction of nitrobenzene. , 2013, Environmental science & technology.

[107]  Yunqi Liu,et al.  One-pot self-assembled three-dimensional TiO2-graphene hydrogel with improved adsorption capacities and photocatalytic and electrochemical activities. , 2013, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[108]  Nan Zhang,et al.  Observing the role of graphene in boosting the two-electron reduction of oxygen in graphene-WO₃ nanorod photocatalysts. , 2014, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[109]  Mietek Jaroniec,et al.  Synergetic effect of MoS2 and graphene as cocatalysts for enhanced photocatalytic H2 production activity of TiO2 nanoparticles. , 2012, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[110]  Yueming Li,et al.  P25-graphene composite as a high performance photocatalyst. , 2010, ACS nano.

[111]  Yi‐Jun Xu,et al.  Selective photoredox using graphene-based composite photocatalysts. , 2013, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[112]  Fang‐Xing Xiao.  An efficient layer-by-layer self-assembly of metal-TiO2 nanoring/nanotube heterostructures, M/T-NRNT (M = Au, Ag, Pt), for versatile catalytic applications. , 2012, Chemical communications.

[113]  Hua Zhang,et al.  Graphene-based composites. , 2012, Chemical Society reviews.

[114]  O. Akhavan.  Graphene nanomesh by ZnO nanorod photocatalysts. , 2010, ACS nano.