Electrical stimulation of sensory nerves with skin electrodes for research, diagnosis, communication and behavioral conditioning: A survey

When electrical current is passed through the body by means of electrodes applied to the skin, sensory nerves can be stimulated. This results in sensations that vary from barely perceivable to highly unpleasant. Such electrocutaneous stimulation of sensory nerves has been studied by engineers, neurologists, physiologists and psychologists, who have investigated the interrelationship between the physical parameters of the electrical stimulus and the psychological effect that it evokes, have used electrical stimulation to study the nervous system and its pathologies and have tried to use cutaneous stimulation as a communication medium. Despite a large number of publications reporting the results of this research, certain basic questions still remain unanswered.SommaireQuand le courant électrique passe à travers le corps au moyen d'électrodes cutanées les nerfs sensoriels peuvent être stimulés. Cela provoque des sensations qui vont de la simple perception aux sensations extrêmement désagréables. Une telle stimulation électro-cutanée des nerfs sensoriels a été étudiée par des ingénieurs, des neurologues, des physiologues et des psychologues: ils ont recherché les relations entre les paramètres physiques du stimulus électrique et l'effet psychologique qu'il évoque; ils ont utilisé la stimulation électrique pour étudier le système nerveux et sa pathologie, et ont essayé d'utiliser la stimulation cutanée en tant que moyen de communication. Bien du'un grand nombre de publications aient exposé les résultats de cette recherche, certaines questions de base restent encore sans réponse.ZusammenfassungWenn elektrischer Strom mit auf der Haut angebrachten Elektroden durch den Körper geleitet wird, können sensible Nerven gereizt werden. Die damit verbundenen Empfindungen reichen vom kaum Wahrnehmbaren bis zum sehr Unangenehmen. Solche elektrokutane Reizung von sensiblen Nerven wurde von Ingenieuren, Neurologen, Physiologen und Psychologen untersucht. Diese studierten die Beziehungen zwischen den physikalischen Parametern des elektrischen Reizes und dem erzeugten psychologischen Effekt. Elektrische Reizung wurde zur Untersuchung des Nervensystems und seiner Pathologie eingesetzt. Man versuchte auch, die Hautreizung als Kommunikationsmittel zu verwenden. Trotz der großen Zahl von Veröffentlichungen mit Forschungsergebnissen bleiben bestimmte grundlegende Fragen noch immer offen.

[1]  H. Helmholtz Ueber die Dauer und den Verlauf der durch Stromesschwankungen inducirten elektrischen Ströme , 1851 .

[2]  E. L. Porter,et al.  The sensory threshold for faradic stimulation in man. , 1913 .

[3]  G. P. Grabfield,et al.  VARIATIONS IN THE SENSORY THRESHOLD FOR FARADIC STIMULATION IN NORMAL HUMAN SUBJECTS. —I. THE DIURNAL RHYTHM , 1913 .

[4]  E. Adrian The response of human sensory nerves to currents of short duration , 1919, The Journal of physiology.

[5]  C. P. Richter PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF THE SKIN , 1929 .

[6]  Spannungsempfindung ohne Hautprickeln bei Wechselstromreizung1 , 1930 .

[7]  HEARING WITHOUT COCHLEA? , 1931, Science.

[8]  The Sensory Aspects of Electrical Stimulation , 1932 .

[9]  K. Cole ELECTRIC CONDUCTANCE OF BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS , 1933 .

[10]  T. A. Jackson,et al.  Electric Shock with Different Size Electrodes , 1934 .

[11]  T. W. Forbes,et al.  The Standardization of Sixty-Cycle Electric Shock for Practical use in Psychological Experimentation , 1935 .

[12]  The Sensitivity of the Fingers to Alternating electrical Currents , 1937 .

[13]  F. A. Fender A PRECISION DEVICE FOR FARADIC STIMULATION. , 1939, Science.

[14]  W. N. Kellogg Electric Shock as a Motivating Stimulus in Conditioning Experiments , 1941 .

[15]  S. Tomkins An Analysis of the Use of Electric Shock with Human Subjects , 1943 .

[16]  G. H. Bishop RESPONSES TO ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF SINGLE SENSORY UNITS OF SKIN , 1943 .

[17]  Determination of the Pain Threshold on Untrained Subjects , 1950 .

[18]  C. F. Dalziel,et al.  Effect of Frequency on Perception Currents , 1950, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

[19]  W. A. Munson,et al.  Electrical Excitation of Nerves in the Skin at Audiofrequencies , 1951 .

[20]  H. Sigel Cutaneous sensory threshold stimulation with high frequency square-wave current. II. The relationship of body site and of skin diseases to the sensory threshold. , 1952, The Journal of investigative dermatology.

[21]  H. Sigel Cutaneous sensory threshold stimulation with high frequency square-wave current. I. The relationship of electrode dimensions to the sensory threshold. , 1952, The Journal of investigative dermatology.

[22]  H G WOLFF,et al.  Pricking Pain Threshold in Different Body Areas.∗ , 1952, Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine.

[23]  C. Kornetsky,et al.  Relationship of electrically induced pain to the amperage and the wattage of shock stimuli. , 1952, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[24]  Prick threshold stimulation with square-wave current; a new measure of skin sensibility. , 1953 .

[25]  S. Mead,et al.  Skin Impedance in Relation to Pain Threshold Testing by Electrical Means , 1953 .

[26]  Cutaneous interaction resulting from simultaneous electrical and mechanical vibratory stimulation. , 1953, Journal of experimental psychology.

[27]  F. A. Geldard Adventures in tactile literacy. , 1957 .

[28]  S. S. Stevens,et al.  Ratio scales and category scales for a dozen perceptual continua. , 1957, Journal of experimental psychology.

[29]  B. Campbell,et al.  Electrical and behavioral effects of different types of shock stimuli on the rat. , 1958, Journal of comparative and physiological psychology.

[30]  Cutaneous sensitivity to electrical pulse stimuli. , 1958, Journal of comparative and physiological psychology.

[31]  J. Hahn,et al.  Cutaneous vibratory thresholds for square-wave electrical pulses. , 1958, Science.

[32]  S. S. Stevens,et al.  A scale of apparent intensity of electric shock. , 1958, Journal of experimental psychology.

[33]  Georg v. Békésy,et al.  Synchronism of Neural Discharges and Their Demultiplication in Pitch Perception on the Skin and in Hearing , 1959 .

[34]  S. S. Stevens The Psychophysics of Sensory Function. , 1960 .

[35]  An Evaluation of the Magnitude Estimation Technique , 1960 .

[36]  F A GELDARD,et al.  Some neglected possibilities of communication. , 1960, Science.

[37]  G. Hawkes Effect of skin temperature on the absolute threshold for electrical current. , 1961, Report. Army Medical Research Laboratory.

[38]  G. Hawkes,et al.  Information Transmitted Via Electrical Cutaneous Stimulus Duration , 1961 .

[39]  G R HAWKES,et al.  Cutaneous discrimination of electrical intensity. , 1961, The American journal of psychology.

[40]  von Haller B. Gilmer,et al.  Toward Cutaneous Electro-Pulse Communication , 1961 .

[41]  G. Hawkes,et al.  δ T for Electrical Cutaneous Stimulation , 1961 .

[42]  Emerson Foulke COMMUNICATION BY ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF THE SKIN. , 1962 .

[43]  D. R. Davis,et al.  Influence of Electric Current on the Skin , 1962, Nature.

[44]  R. T. GREEN,et al.  Absolute Threshold for Electric Shock , 1962, Nature.

[45]  A history of electricity , 1963 .

[46]  An Unusual Phenomenon in the Electrical Properties of Mammalian Skin , 1964, Nature.

[47]  G. Ekman,et al.  SCALES OF UNPLEASANTNESS OF ELECTRICAL STIMULATION , 1964 .

[48]  E FOULKE THE LOCUS DIMENSION AS A BASIS FOR ELECTROCUTANEOUS COMMUNICATION. , 1964, The Journal of psychology.

[49]  B. Tursky,et al.  On the. Psychophysical power function in electric shock , 1964 .

[50]  B. Tursky,et al.  CONTROLLED PHYSICAL AND SUBJECTIVE INTENSITIES OF ELECTRIC SHOCK. , 1964, Psychophysiology.

[51]  S. Rachman Aversion therapy: Chemical or electrical? , 1964 .

[52]  M. Lowenthal,et al.  Effects of aspirin on detection and tolerance of electric shock. , 1965, Journal of applied physiology.

[53]  D. O'connell,et al.  A CONCENTRIC SHOCK ELECTRODE FOR PAIN STIMULATION. , 1965, Psychophysiology.

[54]  B. B. Morgan,et al.  Masking of Cutaneous Sensations in Multiple Stimulus Presentations , 1965, Perceptual and motor skills.

[55]  B. Tursky,et al.  ETHNIC DIFFERENCES AMONG HOUSEWIVES IN PSYCHOPHYSICAL AND SKIN POTENTIAL RESPONSES TO ELECTRIC SHOCK. , 1965, Psychophysiology.

[56]  S L Notermans,et al.  Measurement of the pain threshold determined by electrical stimulation and its clinical application , 1966, Neurology.

[57]  The influence of intensity and duration of electrical stimulation on subjective variables. , 1966, Scandinavian journal of psychology.

[58]  Electrocutaneous pain thresholds in humans to low frequency square-wave pulses. , 1966, The Journal of psychology.

[59]  Some Factors Influencing the Threshold of the Electrocutaneous Stimulus , 1966 .

[60]  S. Notermans Measurement of the pain threshold determined by electrical stimulation and its clinical application , 1967, Neurology.

[61]  R. L. Brown,et al.  A Differential Comparison of Two Types of Electropulse Alphabets Based on Locus of Stimulation , 1967, Perceptual and motor skills.

[62]  A new electrode for the application of electrical shock in aversive conditioning therapy. , 1968, Behaviour research and therapy.

[63]  H. Gerstner,et al.  Der Wechselstromwiderstand der menschlichen Haut , 2004, Pflüger's Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere.

[64]  Untersuchungen über die Wirkung der Mittelfrequenzströme auf den Menschen , 1944, Pflüger's Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere.

[65]  Untersuchungen über die Hautsensibilität , 1937, Pflüger's Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere.

[66]  Untersuchungen über die Hautsensibilität , 1937, Pflüger's Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere.

[67]  Über die Reizung sensibler Nerven des Menschen durch mittelfrequente Wechselströme , 1944, Pflüger's Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere.