Empathy and Involvement in Bullying in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review

Based on the premise that bullies are deficient in empathy or even lack it completely, bullying prevention and intervention programs often include empathy training. These programs are not always as effective as they aim to be, which may be caused by a failure to acknowledge the multidimensional nature of empathy as well as its complex association with involvement in bullying. To provide a clear overview of the research on the association between empathy and involvement in bullying, this article systematically reviews 40 studies on the association of cognitive empathy (24 studies) and affective empathy (38 studies) with four categories of involvement in bullying: bullying, victimization, defending, and bystanding. The results showed that bullying was negatively associated with cognitive and—in particular—affective empathy. Victimization was negatively associated with cognitive empathy but not with affective empathy. Defending was consistently positively associated with both types of empathy. Contradictory findings were observed in bystanding, with studies reporting both negative and positive associations with cognitive empathy, and studies reporting negative and no associations with affective empathy. Together, the findings stress the importance of the distinction between cognitive and affective empathy in involvement in bullying and suggest different intervention strategies for the four types of involvement in bullying.

[1]  A. Garton,et al.  The development of a scale to measure empathy in 8- and 9-year old children , 2005 .

[2]  Maria Hughes,et al.  A two-method investigation of early adolescents' responses upon witnessing peer victimization in school. , 2012, Journal of adolescence.

[3]  R. L. Hagen,et al.  Empathy: review of available measures , 1985 .

[4]  P. Coleman,et al.  Interpersonal Correlates of Peer Victimization Among Young Adolescents , 2003 .

[5]  S. Graham,et al.  Self-views versus peer perceptions of victim status among early adolescents. , 2001 .

[6]  D. Goh,et al.  Cyberbullying Among Adolescents: The Role of Affective and Cognitive Empathy, and Gender , 2010, Child psychiatry and human development.

[7]  R. Hogan,et al.  Development of an empathy scale. , 1969, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[8]  C. Salmivalli,et al.  Early Adolescents’ Participation in Bullying: Is ToM Involved? , 2010 .

[9]  D. Espelage,et al.  Willingness to Intervene in Bullying Episodes Among Middle School Students , 2012 .

[10]  S. Perren,et al.  Children’s Peer Victimization, Empathy, and Emotional Symptoms , 2010, Child psychiatry and human development.

[11]  D. Olweus,et al.  Bullying at school : what we know and what we can do / Dan Olweus , 1993 .

[12]  N. Eisenberg,et al.  The relation of empathy to aggressive and externalizing/antisocial behavior. , 1988, Psychological bulletin.

[13]  D. Premack,et al.  Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? , 1978, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[14]  William Ickes,et al.  The Role of Empathic Accuracy in Adolescents' Peer Relations and Adjustment , 2009, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[15]  Juliana Raskauskas,et al.  Bullying among primary school children in New Zealand: relationships with prosocial behaviour and classroom climate , 2010 .

[16]  C. Salmivalli,et al.  Bullying as a group process: Participant roles and their relations to social status within the group , 1998 .

[17]  Benjamin J. Lovett,et al.  Affective empathy deficits in aggressive children and adolescents: a critical review. , 2007, Clinical psychology review.

[18]  D. Schwartz,et al.  The aggressive victim of bullying: Emotional and behavioral dysregulation as a pathway to victimization by peers. , 2001 .

[19]  Sarah N. Woods,et al.  Emotion recognition abilities and empathy of victims of bullying. , 2009, Child abuse & neglect.

[20]  M. Shiyko,et al.  Impact of the word “bully” on the reported rate of bullying behavior , 2010 .

[21]  Enrica Ciucci,et al.  The emotional core of bullying: Further evidences of the role of callous–unemotional traits and empathy , 2014 .

[22]  D. Cross,et al.  Cyberbullying Versus Face-to-Face Bullying A Theoretical and Conceptual Review , 2009 .

[23]  G. Altoé,et al.  Determinants of adolescents' active defending and passive bystanding behavior in bullying. , 2008, Journal of adolescence.

[24]  J. Hubbard,et al.  Children's physiological and emotional reactions to witnessing bullying predict bystander intervention. , 2013, Child development.

[25]  J. Jenson,et al.  Transitions between subclasses of bullying and victimization when entering middle school. , 2014, Aggressive behavior.

[26]  S. Perren,et al.  Longitudinal Risk Factors for Cyberbullying in Adolescence , 2013 .

[27]  D. Olweus,et al.  The Importance of Sex‐of‐Stimulus Object: Age Trends and Sex Differences in Empathic Responsiveness , 2001 .

[28]  C. Salmivalli.  Bullying and the peer group: A review , 2010 .

[29]  Sandra Graham,et al.  Peer harassment in school : the plight of the vulnerable and victimized , 2001 .

[30]  A. Pellegrini,et al.  A longitudinal study of bullying, dominance, and victimization during the transition from primary school through secondary school , 2002 .

[31]  Pete Smith,et al.  Social cognition and bullying: Social inadequacy or skilled manipulation? , 1999 .

[32]  Christina Salmivalli,et al.  Bullies, victims, and bully-victim relationships in middle childhood and early adolescence. , 2009 .

[33]  Pete Smith,et al.  Bullying and ‘Theory of Mind’: A Critique of the ‘Social Skills Deficit’ View of Anti‐Social Behaviour , 2001 .

[34]  Richard A. Fabes,et al.  Empathy: Conceptualization, measurement, and relation to prosocial behavior , 1990 .

[35]  D. Olweus.  Understanding and researching bullying: Some critical issues. , 2009 .

[36]  K. Lagerspetz,et al.  Group aggression among school children in three schools , 1982 .

[37]  P. Qualter,et al.  Empathy and Bullying: Exploring the Influence of Callous-Unemotional Traits , 2011, Child psychiatry and human development.

[38]  Maria Assunta Zanetti,et al.  Morally Disengaged and Unempathic: Do Cyberbullies Fit These Definitions? An Exploratory Study , 2012, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[39]  Herbert Scheithauer,et al.  Social-Behavioral Correlates of Cyberbullying in a German Student Sample , 2009 .

[40]  Nancy Eisenberg,et al.  Sex Differences in Empathy and Related Capacities , 1983 .

[41]  Mark H. Davis,et al.  A Multidimensional Approach to Individual Differences in Empathy , 1980 .

[42]  D. Espelage,et al.  Exploring the Relation Between Bullying and Homophobic Verbal Content: The Homophobic Content Agent Target (HCAT) Scale , 2005, Violence and Victims.

[43]  K. Berger,et al.  Update on bullying at school: Science forgotten? , 2007 .

[44]  Anthony D. Pellegrini,et al.  A Longitudinal Study of Bullying, Victimization, and Peer Affiliation During the Transition From Primary School to Middle School1 , 2000 .

[45]  D. Farrington,et al.  Development and validation of the Basic Empathy Scale. , 2006, Journal of adolescence.

[46]  N. Eisenberg,et al.  The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors. , 1987, Psychological bulletin.

[47]  Kenneth H. Rubin,et al.  Handbook of Peer Interactions, Relationships, and Groups , 2011 .

[48]  K. Dodge,et al.  ‘Superiority’ is in the Eye of the Beholder: A Comment on Sutton, Smith, and Swettenham , 2001 .

[49]  Gianmarco Altoè,et al.  Does empathy predict adolescents' bullying and defending behavior? , 2007, Aggressive behavior.

[50]  Amanda B. Nickerson,et al.  Attachment and empathy as predictors of roles as defenders or outsiders in bullying interactions. , 2008, Journal of school psychology.

[51]  D. Olweus.  Bully/victim problems among schoolchildren: Basic facts and effects of a school based intervention program. , 1991 .

[52]  D. Farrington,et al.  Bullying: Short-Term and Long-Term Effects, and the Importance of Defiance Theory in Explanation and Prevention , 2008 .

[53]  Brenda K. Bryant,et al.  An Index of Empathy for Children and Adolescents. , 1982 .

[54]  Çiğdem Topcu,et al.  Affective and cognitive empathy as mediators of gender differences in cyber and traditional bullying , 2012 .

[55]  C. Salmivalli,et al.  What Does It Take to Stand Up for the Victim of Bullying?: The Interplay Between Personal and Social Factors , 2010 .

[56]  D. Farrington,et al.  Empathy and offending: a systematic review and meta-analysis , 2004 .

[57]  S. Georgiou,et al.  Bullying and empathy: a short‐term longitudinal investigation , 2010 .

[58]  David P. Farrington,et al.  School-Based Programs to Reduce Bullying and Victimization , 2012 .

[59]  Ana Almeida,et al.  Virtual but not Less Real , 2012 .

[60]  James G. Scott,et al.  Integrating Traditional Bullying and Cyberbullying: Challenges of Definition and Measurement in Adolescents – a Review , 2015 .

[61]  G. Gini.  Social cognition and moral cognition in bullying: What's wrong? , 2006 .

[62]  C. Belacchi,et al.  Feeling and thinking of others: affective and cognitive empathy and emotion comprehension in prosocial/hostile preschoolers. , 2012, Aggressive behavior.

[63]  D. Pepler,et al.  Individual Motivations and Characteristics Associated With Bystander Intervention During Bullying Episodes Among Children and Youth , 2012 .

[64]  I. Rivers,et al.  ‘I h8 u’: Findings from a five-year study of text and email bullying , 2010 .

[65]  Isabel Correia,et al.  School Bullying : Belief in a Personal Just World of Bullies, Victims, and Defenders , 2008 .

[66]  D. Olweus,et al.  Self-reported empathy in Norwegian adolescents: Sex differences, age trends, and relationship to bullying. , 2001 .

[67]  Mark H. Davis.  Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. , 1983 .

[68]  J. Archer.  A Strategic Approach to Aggression , 2001 .

[69]  M. Hoffman.  Empathy and moral development : implications for caring and justice , 2000 .

[70]  D. Farrington,et al.  Examining the relationship between low empathy and bullying , 2006 .

[71]  D. Capozza,et al.  Increasing outgroup trust, reducing infrahumanization, and enhancing future contact intentions via imagined intergroup contact. , 2012 .

[72]  David Warden,et al.  Prosocial children, bullies and victims: An investigation of their sociometric status, empathy and social problem-solving strategies , 2003 .

[73]  K. Dodge,et al.  The role of aggression in peer relations: an analysis of aggression episodes in boys' play groups. , 1991, Child development.

[74]  N. Feshbach,et al.  Empathy in Children: Some Theoretical and Empirical Considerations , 1975 .

[75]  Craig D DiGiovanni,et al.  Predicting Homophobic Behavior Among Heterosexual Youth: Domain General and Sexual Orientation-Specific Factors at the Individual and Contextual Level , 2013, Journal of youth and adolescence.

[76]  D. Espelage,et al.  Handbook of bullying in schools ; an international perspective , 2010 .

[77]  Nancy Eisenberg,et al.  Gender and age differences in empathy and sympathy. , 1987 .

[78]  Elizabeth Levin,et al.  Cyberbullying: Eliciting harm without consequence , 2013, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[79]  D. Pepler,et al.  Peer involvement in bullying: insights and challenges for intervention. , 1999, Journal of adolescence.

[80]  Darrick Jolliffe,et al.  Is low empathy related to bullying after controlling for individual and social background variables? , 2011, Journal of adolescence.

[81]  L. Gano-Overway.  Exploring the Connections Between Caring and Social Behaviors in Physical Education , 2013, Research quarterly for exercise and sport.

[82]  D. Stipek,et al.  Constructive & destructive behavior: Implications for family, school, & society. , 2001 .

[83]  N. Eisenberg,et al.  Empathy and its development , 1987 .

[84]  Nancy Eisenberg,et al.  Empathy and its measurement. , 2003 .

[85]  D. Moher,et al.  Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA Statement , 2009, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[86]  D. Olweus.  Bullying at School , 1994 .

[87]  C. R. Snyder,et al.  Positive Psychological Assessment: A Handbook of Models and Measures , 2003 .

[88]  R. Matthew Gladden,et al.  Bullying surveillance among youths : uniform definitions for public health and recommended data elements, Version 1.0 , 2014 .

[89]  A. Mehrabian,et al.  A measure of emotional empathy. , 1972, Journal of personality.

[90]  Constantinos M. Kokkinos,et al.  The relationship between bullying, victimization, trait emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and empathy among preadolescents , 2011, Social Psychology of Education.

[91]  D. Espelage,et al.  Empathy, Caring, and Bullying: Toward an Understanding of Complex Associations , 2003 .

[92]  N. Eisenberg,et al.  Critical issues in the study of empathy. , 1987 .

[93]  Enrique Chaux,et al.  Socio-economic, socio-political and socio-emotional variables explaining school bullying: a country-wide multilevel analysis. , 2009, Aggressive behavior.

[94]  K. Bussey,et al.  Predictors of student defenders of peer aggression victims: Empathy and social cognitive factors , 2011 .

[95]  J. Strayer,et al.  Empathy in Conduct-Disordered and Comparison Youth. , 1996 .

[96]  Noel A. Card,et al.  Peer Victimization Among Schoolchildren: Correlations, Causes, Consequences, and Considerations in Assessment and Intervention , 2008 .

[97]  D. Cornell,et al.  Identification of Bullies and Victims , 2004 .

[98]  Can Do.  Bullying At School What We Know And What We Can Do , 2016 .

[99]  Kenneth H. Rubin,et al.  The development and treatment of childhood aggression. , 1991 .

[100]  Christina Salmivalli,et al.  Unique and Interactive Effects of Empathy and Social Status on Involvement in Bullying , 2009 .

[101]  Peter K. Smith,et al.  Cyberbullying in the global playground : research from international perspectives , 2012 .

[102]  R. Iannotti,et al.  School bullying among adolescents in the United States: physical, verbal, relational, and cyber. , 2009, The Journal of adolescent health : official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine.