Critical Raw Materials

This chapter goes deeper into the concept of critical raw materials (CRMs), how they are defined, and how they are classified. The ethical and environmental problems associated with the use of CRMs in established renewable energy technologies are explored, and how path dependencies have been established in the supply chain. We focus on the specific example of cobalt as a CRM in lithium-ion batteries and show that it presents a bottleneck in the global roll-out of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Then, we look at the different factors which increase the supply risks of CRMs and summarize political initiatives such as the European Union Action Plan on Critical Raw Materials to improve resilience against future shocks. Finally, we briefly put the above issues into the context of fuel cells.