Bacterial toxins in musculoskeletal infections

Musculoskeletal infections (MSKIs) remain a major health burden in orthopaedics. Bacterial toxins are foundational to pathogenesis in MSKI, but poorly understood by the community of providers that care for patients with MSKI, inducing an international group of microbiologists, infectious diseases specialists, orthopaedic surgeons and biofilm scientists to review the literature in this field to identify key topics and compile the current knowledge on the role of toxins in MSKI, with the goal of illuminating potential impact on biofilm formation and dispersal as well as therapeutic strategies.

[1]  T. Foster.  The MSCRAMM Family of Cell-Wall-Anchored Surface Proteins of Gram-Positive Cocci. , 2019, Trends in microbiology.

[2]  J. Parvizi,et al.  Equine or porcine synovial fluid as a novel ex vivo model for the study of bacterial free-floating biofilms that form in human joint infections , 2019, PloS one.

[3]  S. Gill,et al.  An in vitro platform for elucidating the molecular genetics of S. aureus invasion of the osteocyte lacuno-canalicular network during chronic osteomyelitis. , 2019, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[4]  H. Rohde,et al.  2018 international consensus meeting on musculoskeletal infection: Summary from the biofilm workgroup and consensus on biofilm related musculoskeletal infections , 2019, Journal of orthopaedic research : official publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society.

[5]  R. O’Toole,et al.  2018 International Consensus Meeting on Musculoskeletal Infection: Research Priorities from the General Assembly Questions , 2019, Journal of orthopaedic research : official publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society.

[6]  P. Buckley,et al.  Identification of biologic agents to neutralize the bicomponent leukocidins of Staphylococcus aureus , 2019, Science Translational Medicine.

[7]  Jonathan E. Schmitz,et al.  Importance of Propionibacterium acnes hemolytic activity in human intervertebral discs: A microbiological study , 2018, PloS one.

[8]  J. Henes,et al.  Staphylococcus aureus PSM Peptides Modulate Human Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cells to Prime Regulatory T Cells , 2018, Front. Immunol..

[9]  S. Gill,et al.  Tracking Anti-Staphylococcus aureus Antibodies Produced In Vivo and Ex Vivo during Foot Salvage Therapy for Diabetic Foot Infections Reveals Prognostic Insights and Evidence of Diversified Humoral Immunity , 2018, Infection and Immunity.

[10]  Stuart M. Brown,et al.  Hierarchy of human IgG recognition within the Staphylococcus aureus immunome , 2018, Scientific Reports.

[11]  M. Otto.  Staphylococcal biofilms. , 2008, Current topics in microbiology and immunology.

[12]  C. Beck,et al.  Immunotherapy synergizes with debridement and antibiotic therapy in a murine 1‐stage exchange model of MRSA implant‐associated osteomyelitis , 2018, Journal of orthopaedic research : official publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society.

[13]  B. Sellman,et al.  Alpha-Toxin Contributes to Biofilm Formation among Staphylococcus aureus Wound Isolates , 2018, Toxins.

[14]  F. O'Brien,et al.  Staphylococcal Osteomyelitis: Disease Progression, Treatment Challenges, and Future Directions , 2018, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[15]  Charles E McCulloch,et al.  Synovial Fluid Profile at the Time of Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction and Its Association With Cartilage Matrix Composition 3 Years After Surgery , 2018, The American journal of sports medicine.

[16]  Robert K. Eastlack,et al.  Propionibacterium acnes biofilm is present in intervertebral discs of patients undergoing microdiscectomy , 2017, PloS one.

[17]  H. Jafri,et al.  Antibody-based therapy to combat Staphylococcus aureus infections. , 2017, Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.

[18]  K. Bayles,et al.  Staphylococcus aureus biofilm: a complex developmental organism , 2017, Molecular microbiology.

[19]  G. Schett,et al.  Pasteurella multocida Toxin Triggers RANKL-Independent Osteoclastogenesis , 2017, Front. Immunol..

[20]  Joshua W. McCausland,et al.  Toxin Mediates Sepsis Caused by Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis , 2017, PLoS pathogens.

[21]  S. Bertholet,et al.  Staphylococcus aureus-dependent septic arthritis in murine knee joints: local immune response and beneficial effects of vaccination , 2016, Scientific Reports.

[22]  H. Jafri,et al.  Safety, Tolerability, and Pharmacokinetics of MEDI4893, an Investigational, Extended-Half-Life, Anti-Staphylococcus aureus Alpha-Toxin Human Monoclonal Antibody, in Healthy Adults , 2016, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[23]  S. Nathan,et al.  Targeting Staphylococcus aureus Toxins: A Potential form of Anti-Virulence Therapy , 2016, Toxins.

[24]  J. Willemse,et al.  Detection of Alpha-Toxin and Other Virulence Factors in Biofilms of Staphylococcus aureus on Polystyrene and a Human Epidermal Model , 2016, PloS one.

[25]  K. Schenke-Layland,et al.  PSM Peptides of Staphylococcus aureus Activate the p38–CREB Pathway in Dendritic Cells, Thereby Modulating Cytokine Production and T Cell Priming , 2016, The Journal of Immunology.

[26]  M. Otto,et al.  Staphylococcal adaptation to diverse physiologic niches: an overview of transcriptomic and phenotypic changes in different biological environments. , 2015, Future microbiology.

[27]  A. Fouet,et al.  Molecular Characterization of Nonhemolytic and Nonpigmented Group B Streptococci Responsible for Human Invasive Infections , 2015, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[28]  S. Lustig,et al.  Delta-toxin production deficiency in Staphylococcus aureus: a diagnostic marker of bone and joint infection chronicity linked with osteoblast invasion and biofilm formation. , 2015, Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.

[29]  C. Beck,et al.  A Diagnostic Serum Antibody Test for Patients With Staphylococcus aureus Osteomyelitis , 2015, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[30]  Anthony C. Duong,et al.  Role of Phenol-Soluble Modulins in Formation of Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms in Synovial Fluid , 2015, Infection and Immunity.

[31]  Claire Gendrin,et al.  A streptococcal lipid toxin induces membrane permeabilization and pyroptosis leading to fetal injury , 2015, EMBO molecular medicine.

[32]  J. Parvizi,et al.  Effect of biofilms on recalcitrance of staphylococcal joint infection to antibiotic treatment. , 2015, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[33]  M. Otto,et al.  Molecular determinants of staphylococcal biofilm dispersal and structuring , 2014, Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol..

[34]  Gordon Y C Cheung,et al.  Phenol-soluble modulins--critical determinants of staphylococcal virulence. , 2014, FEMS microbiology reviews.

[35]  S. Nodzo,et al.  Hemolysis as a clinical marker for propionibacterium acnes orthopedic infection. , 2014, American journal of orthopedics.

[36]  S. Dramsi,et al.  Group B streptococcal haemolysin and pigment, a tale of twins , 2014, FEMS microbiology reviews.

[37]  E. Zakharian,et al.  RTX Toxin Plays a Key Role in Kingella kingae Virulence in an Infant Rat Model , 2014, Infection and Immunity.

[38]  Yong-Qing Xu,et al.  Staphylococcal Protein A, Panton-Valentine Leukocidin and Coagulase Aggravate the Bone Loss and Bone Destruction in Osteomyelitis , 2013, Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry.

[39]  Eric P. Skaar,et al.  A secreted bacterial protease tailors the Staphylococcus aureus virulence repertoire to modulate bone remodeling during osteomyelitis. , 2013, Cell host & microbe.

[40]  L. Aravind,et al.  A hemolytic pigment of Group B Streptococcus allows bacterial penetration of human placenta , 2013, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[41]  A. Vernallis,et al.  Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae? , 2013, European Spine Journal.

[42]  J. Bubeck Wardenburg,et al.  ADAM10 mediates vascular injury induced by Staphylococcus aureus α-hemolysin. , 2012, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[43]  M. Smeltzer,et al.  saeRS and sarA Act Synergistically to Repress Protease Production and Promote Biofilm Formation in Staphylococcus aureus , 2012, PloS one.

[44]  Blaise R. Boles,et al.  Functional Amyloids Composed of Phenol Soluble Modulins Stabilize Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms , 2012, PLoS pathogens.

[45]  P. Schlievert,et al.  Alpha-Toxin Promotes Staphylococcus aureus Mucosal Biofilm Formation , 2012, Front. Cell. Inf. Microbio..

[46]  D. Libraty,et al.  Staphylococcus aureus reactivation osteomyelitis after 75 years. , 2012, The New England journal of medicine.

[47]  S. Periasamy,et al.  How Staphylococcus aureus biofilms develop their characteristic structure , 2012, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[48]  E. Walsh,et al.  Circulating Human Antibody-Secreting Cells during Vaccinations and Respiratory Viral Infections Are Characterized by High Specificity and Lack of Bystander Effect , 2011, The Journal of Immunology.

[49]  E. Walsh,et al.  Circulating antibody-secreting cells during acute respiratory syncytial virus infection in adults. , 2010, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[50]  Adeline R. Whitney,et al.  Staphylococcus epidermidis Strategies to Avoid Killing by Human Neutrophils , 2010, PLoS pathogens.

[51]  F. Vandenesch,et al.  Rapid Detection of Staphylococcus aureus Panton-Valentine Leukocidin in Clinical Specimens by Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay and Immunochromatographic Tests , 2010, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[52]  J. Zwerina,et al.  Inhibition of interleukin-6 receptor directly blocks osteoclast formation in vitro and in vivo. , 2009, Arthritis and rheumatism.

[53]  L. Visai,et al.  Panton-Valentine Leukocidin Gene Detected in a Staphylococcus Aureus Strain Isolated from a Knee Arthroprosthesis Infection , 2009, The International journal of artificial organs.

[54]  V. Nizet,et al.  Bacterial Phenotype Variants in Group B Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome , 2009, Emerging infectious diseases.

[55]  A. Cheung,et al.  SarZ Promotes the Expression of Virulence Factors and Represses Biofilm Formation by Modulating SarA and agr in Staphylococcus aureus , 2008, Infection and Immunity.

[56]  D. Sturdevant,et al.  RNAIII-independent target gene control by the agr quorum-sensing system: insight into the evolution of virulence regulation in Staphylococcus aureus. , 2008, Molecular cell.

[57]  O. Schneewind,et al.  Vaccine protection against Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia , 2008, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[58]  A. Kennedy,et al.  Identification of novel cytolytic peptides as key virulence determinants for community-associated MRSA , 2007, Nature Medicine.

[59]  J. S. St. Geme,et al.  Identification and Characterization of an RTX Toxin in the Emerging Pathogen Kingella kingae , 2006, Journal of bacteriology.

[60]  A. Carmody,et al.  Increased colonization of indwelling medical devices by quorum-sensing mutants of Staphylococcus epidermidis in vivo. , 2004, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[61]  V. Nizet,et al.  Sword and shield: linked group B streptococcal beta-hemolysin/cytolysin and carotenoid pigment function to subvert host phagocyte defense. , 2004, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[62]  S. Hamada,et al.  Infection by Streptococcus pyogenes Induces the Receptor Activator of NF-κB Ligand Expression in Mouse Osteoblastic Cells , 2003, Infection and Immunity.

[63]  M. Awad,et al.  Synergistic Effects of Alpha-Toxin and Perfringolysin O in Clostridium perfringens-Mediated Gas Gangrene , 2001, Infection and Immunity.

[64]  C. Lee,et al.  Clostridial gas gangrene. I. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of microvascular dysfunction induced by exotoxins of Clostridium perfringens. , 2000, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[65]  M. Smeltzer,et al.  Role of the accessory gene regulator (agr) in pathogenesis of staphylococcal osteomyelitis , 1995, Infection and immunity.

[66]  G. Zimmerman,et al.  Clostridium perfringens invasiveness is enhanced by effects of theta toxin upon PMNL structure and function: the roles of leukocytotoxicity and expression of CD11/CD18 adherence glycoprotein. , 1993, FEMS immunology and medical microbiology.

[67]  R. Madhok,et al.  Serum interleukin 6 levels in rheumatoid arthritis: correlations with clinical and laboratory indices of disease activity. , 1993, Annals of the rheumatic diseases.

[68]  F. Emmrich,et al.  Interleukin-6 in synovial fluid is closely associated with chronic synovitis in rheumatoid arthritis , 2004, Rheumatology International.