Gender differences in the acquisition of salary negotiation skills: the role of goals, self-efficacy, and perceived control.

The authors examined the effectiveness of different training programs in men's and women's acquisition of salary negotiation skills. MBA students received a 2-stage training program that provided initial content instruction in negotiation tactics, followed by supplemental training in either goal setting or self-management. After both training sessions, participants conducted salary negotiations with trained confederates who used standardized guides to award salary increases. Results indicated that, although women negotiated lower salaries than men following the initial training, controlling for goals eliminated this difference. Analysis of salary improvements following supplemental training revealed that gender differences were reduced for self-management participants only. Changes in perceived control over the negotiation appeared to mediate this effect. Implications of these findings for understanding training effectiveness are discussed.

[1]  Marilyn E. Gist,et al.  TRANSFER TRAINING METHOD: ITS INFLUENCE ON SKILL GENERALIZATION, SKILL REPETITION, AND PERFORMANCE LEVEL , 1990 .

[2]  William L. Ury,et al.  Getting to Yes , 2019, Boy on the Bridge.

[3]  Barry Gerhart,et al.  Determinants and consequences of salary negotiations by male and female MBA graduates. , 1991 .

[4]  P. Gardner,et al.  Explaining gender differences in self-pay expectations: Social comparison standards and perceptions of fair pay. , 1992 .

[5]  L. James,et al.  Mediators, Moderators, and Tests for Mediation. , 1984 .

[6]  Kenneth N. Wexley,et al.  Effectiveness of positive reinforcement and goal setting as methods of management development. , 1975 .

[7]  Henry L. Tosi.  A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance , 1991 .

[8]  Daniel R. Ilgen,et al.  SEX DIFFERENCES IN OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE, PAY, AND WORTH: A SUPPLY‐SIDE APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING THE MALE‐FEMALE WAGE GAP , 1987 .

[9]  B. B. Bunker,et al.  Gender, self confidence, and social influence strategies: An organizational simulation. , 1983 .

[10]  Ellen R. Auster.  Task Characteristics as a Bridge Between Macro- and Microlevel Research on Salary Inequality Between Men and Women , 1989 .

[11]  Gary P. Latham,et al.  Application of social learning theory to employee self-management of attendance , 1987 .

[12]  Vicki S. Kaman,et al.  Anticipating pay negotiation strategies and pay outcomes during recruitment: An exploration of gender differences , 1990 .

[13]  E. A. Locke,et al.  A theory of goal setting & task performance , 1990 .

[14]  Marilyn E. Gist,et al.  THE INFLUENCE OF TRAINING METHOD ON SELF‐EFFICACY AND IDEA GENERATION AMONG MANAGERS , 1989 .

[15]  Marilyn E. Gist,et al.  EFFECTS OF ALTERNATIVE TRAINING METHODS ON SELF-EFFICACY AND PERFORMANCE IN COMPUTER SOFTWARE TRAINING , 1989 .

[16]  Marilyn E. Gist,et al.  Self-Efficacy: A Theoretical Analysis of Its Determinants and Malleability , 1992 .

[17]  A. Bandura,et al.  Cultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation. , 1981 .

[18]  Peter J. Carnevale,et al.  Effects of trust, aspiration, and gender on negotiation tactics. , 1980 .

[19]  P. McCarty.  Effects of Feedback on the Self-Confidence of Men and Women , 1986 .

[20]  P. Ackerman,et al.  Motivation and cognitive abilities: an integrative/aptitude-treatment interaction approach to skill acquisition , 1989 .

[21]  L. Subich,et al.  College students' perceptions of the acceptability of below average salary offers , 1990 .

[22]  A. Bandura,et al.  Impact of conceptions of ability on self-regulatory mechanisms and complex decision making. , 1989, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[23]  B. Major,et al.  An Investigation of Sex Differences in Pay Expectations and Their Possible Causes , 1984 .

[24]  B. Weiner.  An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. , 1985, Psychological review.

[25]  John R. Anderson.  Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications , 1980 .

[26]  Thomas W. Dougherty,et al.  Influence tactics and salary attainment: A gender-specific analysis , 1989 .

[27]  Robert A. Reber,et al.  The Effects of Training, Goal Setting, and Knowledge of Results on Safe Behavior: a Component Analysis. , 1984 .

[28]  D. Cervone,et al.  Anchoring, Efficacy and Action: The Influence of Judgmental Heuristics on Self-Efficacy Judgments a , 1986 .

[29]  F. H. Kanfer,et al.  Self-management methods. , 1991 .

[30]  Jeanne M. Brett,et al.  All the right stuff : a comparison of female and male managers career progression , 1992 .

[31]  E. A. Locke,et al.  Task complexity as a moderator of goal effects: A meta-analysis. , 1987 .

[32]  Timothy T. Baldwin,et al.  Posttraining Strategies for Facilitating Positive Transfer: An Empirical Exploration , 1986 .

[33]  G. Keppel,et al.  Design and Analysis: A Researcher's Handbook , 1976 .

[34]  I. Frieze,et al.  Perceived and Actual Discrimination in the Salaries of Male and Female Managers1 , 1990 .

[35]  E. Lenney,et al.  Women's self-confidence in achievement settings. , 1977 .

[36]  Edwin A. Locke,et al.  Effect of self-efficacy, goals, and task strategies on task performance. , 1984 .

[37]  D. Tannen.  You just don't understand: women and men in conversation. morrow , 1990 .

[38]  Barry Gerhart,et al.  Gender Differences in Current and Starting Salaries: The Role of Performance, College Major, and Job Title , 1990 .

[39]  A. Bandura,et al.  Effect of perceived controllability and performance standards on self-regulation of complex decision making. , 1989, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[40]  M. Neale,et al.  Effects of self- and competitor goals on performance in an interdependent bargaining task , 1987 .

[41]  Chester Louis Karrass.  The Negotiating Game , 1970 .

[42]  B. Martin.  Gender Differences in Salary Expectations When Current Salary Information is Provided , 1989 .

[43]  Vandra L. Huber,et al.  Effects of task difficulty, goal setting, and strategy on performance of a heuristic task. , 1985 .

[44]  Arnold P. Goldstein,et al.  Helping People Change: A Textbook of Methods , 1975 .