Superficial fungal infections

Superficial fungal infections arise from a pathogen that is restricted to the stratum corneum, with little or no tissue reaction. In this Seminar, three types of infection will be covered: tinea versicolor, piedra, and tinea nigra. Tinea versicolor is common worldwide and is caused by Malassezia spp, which are human saprophytes that sometimes switch from yeast to pathogenic mycelial form. Malassezia furfur, Malassezia globosa, and Malassezia sympodialis are most closely linked to tinea versicolor. White and black piedra are both common in tropical regions of the world; white piedra is also endemic in temperate climates. Black piedra is caused by Piedraia hortae; white piedra is due to pathogenic species of the Trichosporon genus. Tinea nigra is also common in tropical areas and has been confused with melanoma.

[1]  R. Summerbell,et al.  Onychomycosis: strategies to improve efficacy and reduce recurrence , 2002, Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology : JEADV.

[2]  P. Jacobs,et al.  Tinea versicolor: treatment and prophylaxis with monthly administration of ketoconazole. , 1984, Cutis.

[3]  J. Delescluse.  Itraconazole in tinea versicolor: a review. , 1990, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[4]  Paulo Horta.  Sobre uma nova forma de Piedra , 1911 .

[5]  V. C. Erchiga,et al.  Malassezia species in skin diseases , 2002 .

[6]  H. Singletary,et al.  TINEA NIGRA PALMARIS. A REPORT OF 15 CASES FROM COASTAL NORTH CAROLINA. , 1964, Archives of dermatology.

[7]  J. Birnbaum.  Pharmacology of the allylamines. , 1990, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[8]  M. D. Colombo,et al.  Clinical efficacy and tolerability of terbinafine in patients with pityriasis versicolor , 1991, Mycoses.

[9]  R. Yaghoobi,et al.  Fluconazole versus ketoconazole in the treatment of tinea versicolor , 2002, The Journal of dermatological treatment.

[10]  W. Liao,et al.  Cepholosporium acremonium. A new strain of fungus causing white piedra. , 1991, Chinese medical journal.

[11]  A. Gupta,et al.  Efficacy of itraconazole in the prophylactic treatment of pityriasis (tinea) versicolor. , 2002, Archives of dermatology.

[12]  A. Oriani,et al.  Pityriasis Versicolor in the Pediatric Age , 1991, Pediatric dermatology.

[13]  B. Reyes,et al.  Ketoconazole 2% shampoo in the treatment of tinea versicolor: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. , 1998, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[14]  O. Köse,et al.  Comparison of a single 400 mg dose versus a 7-day 200 mg daily dose of itraconazole in the treatment of tinea versicolor , 2002, The Journal of dermatological treatment.

[15]  F. Flowers,et al.  Treatment of tinea nigra with terbinafine. , 1999, Cutis.

[16]  G. S. Hoog,et al.  Trichosporon on humans: a practical account , 1994, Mycoses.

[17]  E. Guého,et al.  The genus Malassezia with description of four new species , 1996, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek.

[18]  M. Abdulghani,et al.  Pigmentary changes of tinea versicolor in dark‐skinned patients , 2001, International journal of dermatology.

[19]  W. Cunliffe,et al.  Cell‐mediated immunity to the mycelial phase of Malassezia spp. in patients with pityriasis versicolor and controls , 2001, The British journal of dermatology.

[20]  E. B. Ritchie,et al.  A STUDY OF TINEA NIGRA PALMARIS. REPORT OF A CASE AND INOCULATION EXPERIMENTS. , 1964, Archives of dermatology.

[21]  J. Faergemann.  Treatment of Pityriasis versicolor with Itraconazole: A Double‐Blind Placebo Controlled Study , 1988, Mycoses.

[22]  B. Elewski,et al.  Guidelines of care for superficial mycotic infectionsof the skin: Pityriasis (tinea) versicolor , 1996 .

[23]  H. Degreef,et al.  Pharmacokinetic profile of orally administered itraconazole in human skin. , 1988, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[24]  G. Midgley.  The lipophilic yeasts: state of the art and prospects. , 2000, Medical mycology.

[25]  A. Oriani,et al.  Pityriasis versicolor of the face , 1991, Mycoses.

[26]  B. Davis,et al.  Treatment of tinea nigra palmaris with miconazole. , 1980, Archives of dermatology.

[27]  B. Amichai.  Treatment of pityriasis versicolor with a shampoo containing 1% bifonazole (AgisporR shampoo) in children , 2000, Clinical and experimental dermatology.

[28]  Jozemar Pereira dos Santos,et al.  Clinical and mycological study of scalp white piedra in the State of Paraíba, Brazil. , 2002, Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz.

[29]  N. Shear,et al.  Drug interactions: Proteins, pumps, and P-450s. , 2002, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[30]  B. Elewski,et al.  International summit on cutaneous antifungal therapy. Boston, Massachusetts, Nov. 11-13, 1994. , 1995, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[31]  P. Mayser.  Genus Malassezia: taxonomic classification and clinical significance in animals and man. , 2000 .

[32]  S. A. Pecher,et al.  Prevalência de micoses superficiais na população adulta da fronteira Brasil-Colômbia , 1986 .

[33]  R. Brodell,et al.  Tinea versicolor of the face in black children in a temperate region. , 1989, Cutis.

[34]  O. Fischman.  Black piedra among Brazilian Indians. , 1973, Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de Sao Paulo.

[35]  K. Nishimura,et al.  Specific oligonucleotide primers for identification of Hortaea werneckii, a causative agent of tinea nigra. , 2003, Diagnostic microbiology and infectious disease.

[36]  C. Douchet,et al.  White piedra and Trichosporon species in equatorial Africa. II. Clinical and mycological associations: an analysis of 449 superficial inguinal specimens , 1994, Mycoses.

[37]  H. Bieley,et al.  ALBERT'S SOLUTION VERSUS POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION IN THE DIAGNOSIS OF TINEA VERSICOLOR , 1994, International journal of dermatology.

[38]  F. M. Ramos,et al.  Randomized Comparative Clinical Trial of Itraconazole and Selenium Sulfide Shampoo for the Treatment of Pityriasis Versicolor , 1987 .

[39]  A. Burden,et al.  Tinea nigra secondary to Exophiala werneckii responding to itraconazole , 1997, The British journal of dermatology.

[40]  D. Eisen,et al.  Tinea versicolor treated with terbinafine 1% solution , 1999, International journal of dermatology.

[41]  S. A. Pecher,et al.  "Tinea Nigra" no Amazonas , 1971 .

[42]  K. T. Holland,et al.  The distribution and ecology of Malassezia furfur and cutaneous bacteria on human skin. , 1989, The Journal of applied bacteriology.

[43]  C. Brusko,et al.  Ketoconazole Hepatotoxicity in a Patient Treated for Environmental Illness and Systemic Candidiasis , 1991, DICP : the annals of pharmacotherapy.

[44]  L. Libow,et al.  Trichosporon beigelii infection presenting as white piedra and onychomycosis in the same patient. , 2002, Cutis.

[45]  P. Nordin,et al.  Pityriasis versicolor: clinical experience with Lamisil cream and Lamisil DermGel. , 1997, Dermatology.

[46]  V. Silva,et al.  Skin colonization byMalassezia furfur in healthy children up to 15 years old , 1995, Mycopathologia.

[47]  Helena D. Fernandez‐Nava,et al.  Comparison of single dose 400 mg versus 10‐day 200 mg daily dose ketoconazole in the treatment of tinea versicolor , 1997, International journal of dermatology.

[48]  S. Khandpur,et al.  Itraconazole therapy for white piedra affecting scalp hair. , 2002, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[49]  B. Johnson,et al.  Hyperpigmented tinea versicolor. , 1976, Archives of dermatology.

[50]  NORMAN L. Sykes.  EARWAX AND TINEA VERSICOLOR , 1994, International journal of dermatology.

[51]  J. Faergemann,et al.  Experimental infections in rabbits and humans with Pityrosporum orbiculare and P. ovale. , 1981, The Journal of investigative dermatology.

[52]  Chan Hl.  Pemphigus vulgaris associated with systemic lupus erythematosus. , 1999 .

[53]  H. Blank.  Tinea nigra: a twenty-year incubation period? , 1979, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[54]  E. Rivitti,et al.  Ultrastructure of black piedra , 1991, Mycoses.

[55]  M. Amer.  Fluconazole in the treatment of tinea versicolor , 1997 .

[56]  S. Passi,et al.  Identification of tyrosinase inhibitors in cultures of Pityrosporum. , 1978, The Journal of investigative dermatology.

[57]  A. Oriani,et al.  Case Report. Erythrasmoid pityriasis versicolor , 2001, Mycoses.

[58]  R. Summerbell,et al.  Epidemiology of Malassezia yeasts associated with pityriasis versicolor in Ontario, Canada. , 2001, Medical mycology.

[59]  P. Jacobs.  Treatment of fungal skin infections: state of the art. , 1990, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[60]  R. Weiss,et al.  [Yeasts of the genus Malassezia: taxonomic classification and significance in (veterinary and) clinical medicine]. , 2000, Mycoses.

[61]  G. Moreno,et al.  Isolation of Malassezia furfur from patients with onychomycosis. , 1997, Journal of medical and veterinary mycology : bi-monthly publication of the International Society for Human and Animal Mycology.

[62]  R. Santos,et al.  Black piedra among the Zoró Indians from Amazônia (Brazil) , 1989, Mycopathologia.

[63]  J. P. Hurley,et al.  Tinea nigra masquerading as acral lentiginous melanoma. , 1986, The Journal of dermatologic surgery and oncology.

[64]  A. Chakrabarti,et al.  Single-Dose Fluconazole versus Itraconazole in Pityriasis versicolor , 2004, Dermatology.

[65]  C. Chu,et al.  Malassezia furfur fungaemia in a ventilator-dependent patient without known risk factors. , 2002, Hong Kong medical journal = Xianggang yi xue za zhi.

[66]  A. Scheynius,et al.  Phenotypic characterization in situ of inflammatory cells in pityriasis (tinea) versicolor. , 1984, Acta dermato-venereologica.

[67]  H. Schuppe,et al.  Frequency and spectrum of Malassezia yeasts in the area of the prepuce and glans penis , 2001, BJU international.

[68]  D. Elston,et al.  Dermoscopy in the diagnosis of tinea nigra plantaris. , 2001, Cutis.

[69]  Á. Casaño,et al.  Malassezia globosa as the causative agent of pityriasis versicolor , 2000 .

[70]  Burke Wa.  Tinea nigra: treatment with topical ketoconazole. , 1993 .

[71]  H. Schulz,et al.  Topische Anwendung einer 0.1%igen Ciclopiroxolamin‐Lösung * zur Behandlung der Pityriasis versicolor , 1989 .

[72]  T. Cook,et al.  Diagnosing Tinea Versicolor: Don't Scrape, Just Tape , 2000, Pediatric dermatology.

[73]  H. Mittag.  The fine structure of Hortaea werneckii , 1993, Mycoses (Berlin).

[74]  U. Budimulja,et al.  One-week terbinafine 1% solution in pityriasis versicolor: twice-daily application is more effective than once-daily , 2002, The Journal of dermatological treatment.

[75]  M. Kombila,et al.  White piedra and Trichosporon species in equatorial Africa. I. History and clinical aspects: an analysis of 449 superficial inguinal specimens , 1994, Mycoses.

[76]  W. Steglich,et al.  Pityrialactone- a new fluorochrome from the tryptophan metabolism of M. alassezia furfur , 2004, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek.

[77]  J. Hickman.  A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled evaluation of short-term treatment with oral itraconazole in patients with tinea versicolor. , 1996, Journal of American Academy of Dermatology.

[78]  C. Magro,et al.  Atrophying tinea versicolor: A clinical and histological study of 12 patients , 2003, International journal of dermatology.

[79]  R. Andreozzi,et al.  White piedra: further evidence of a synergistic infection. , 2003, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[80]  A. T. Londero,et al.  White piedra of unusual localization. , 1967, Sabouraudia.

[81]  A. Pembroke,et al.  Tinea nigra palmaris , 1993, Clinical and experimental dermatology.

[82]  J. Faergemann,et al.  An open trial of the effect of a zinc pyrithione shampoo in tinea versicolor. , 1980, Cutis.

[83]  R. Caplan,et al.  CURE OF TINEA NIGRA BY EPIDERMAL STRIPPING. , 1965, Archives of dermatology.

[84]  E. Rivitti,et al.  White piedra: ultrastructure and a new micro‐ecological aspect , 1990, Mycoses.

[85]  L. Severo,et al.  Tinea nigra: Report of four cases observed in Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil) and a review of Brazilian literature , 1994, Mycopathologia.

[86]  J. Faergemann,et al.  Levels of fluconazole in serum, stratum corneum, epidermis‐dermis (without stratum corneum) and eccrine sweat , 1993, Clinical and experimental dermatology.

[87]  T. Sugita,et al.  Isolation of Trichosporon asahii from environmental materials. , 2000, Medical mycology.

[88]  M. Morgan,et al.  Enlarging pigmented patches on the hand , 2003, International journal of dermatology.

[89]  A. Elhassan,et al.  TINEA VERSICOLOR AND VISCERAL LEISHMANIASIS , 1994, International journal of dermatology.

[90]  Peter J. Sunenshine,et al.  Tinea versicolor , 1998, International journal of dermatology.

[91]  J. Guillot,et al.  Identification of Malassezia species isolated from patients with seborrhoeic dermatitis, atopic dermatitis, pityriasis versicolor and normal subjects. , 2000, Medical mycology.

[92]  N. Shear,et al.  Antifungal agents : an overview. II , 1994 .

[93]  C. Conill,et al.  Pityriasis versicolor confined to the radiation therapy field. , 1990, Acta oncologica.

[94]  N. Shear,et al.  Antifungal agents: an overview. Part II. , 1994, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[95]  R. C. Burke,et al.  Tinea versicolor: susceptibility factors and experimental infection in human beings. , 1961, The Journal of investigative dermatology.

[96]  C. Elmets.  Management of common superficial fungal infections in patients with AIDS. , 1994, Journal of American Academy of Dermatology.

[97]  A. Singal,et al.  Comparative Efficacy of Ketoconazole and Fluconazole in the Treatment of Pityriasis Versicolor: A One Year Follow‐up Study , 2001, The Journal of dermatology.

[98]  O. Fischman.  Black piedra in Brazil. A contribution to its study in Manaus (state of Amazonas) , 1965, Mycopathologia et mycologia applicata.

[99]  K. Hashimoto,et al.  TINEA VERSICOLOR: HISTOLOGIC AND ULTRASTRUCTURAL INVESTIGATION OF PIGMENTARY CHANGES , 1992, International journal of dermatology.

[100]  R. Simmons,et al.  A new species of Malassezia. , 1990 .

[101]  P. Cernoch,et al.  Genital white piedra: epidemiology, microbiology, and therapy. , 1986, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[102]  J. Hall,et al.  Tinea nigra palmaris: differentiation from malignant melanoma or junctional nevi. , 1998, Cutis.

[103]  M. Mcginnis,et al.  Infections caused by dematiaceous fungi: chromoblastomycosis and phaeohyphomycosis. , 1988, Infectious disease clinics of North America.

[104]  K. Ishak,et al.  Hepatic injury associated with ketoconazole therapy. Analysis of 33 cases. , 1984, Gastroenterology.

[105]  P. Criado,et al.  Tinea Nigra: Report of Two Cases in Infants , 2003, Pediatric dermatology.

[106]  M. Meireles,et al.  Genital white piedra: an emerging new fungal disease? , 1980 .

[107]  W. Abramovits‐Ackerman,et al.  Therapy of Tinea Nigra Plantaris , 1989, International journal of dermatology.

[108]  B. Elewski,et al.  Guidelines of care for superficial mycotic infections of the skin: Piedra. Guidelines/Outcomes Committee. American Academy of Dermatology. , 1996, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[109]  C. Lewis,et al.  Tinea nigra palmaris. Treatment with thiabendazole topically. , 1975, Archives of dermatology.

[110]  A. E. A. Leão,et al.  Sobre os cogumelos da piedra brazileira , 1928 .

[111]  J. Clarridge,et al.  A new Brevibacterium sp. isolated from infected genital hair of patients with white piedra. , 1993, Journal of medical microbiology.

[112]  Ney Soares de Araújo,et al.  Piedra negra: estudo de seu agente etiológico em microscopia eletrônica de varredura , 1987 .

[113]  S. Miller,et al.  Bilateral tinea nigra plantaris and tinea nigra plantaris mimicking melanoma. , 1999, Cutis.

[114]  N. Zaias.  Pityriasis versicolor with ketoconazole. , 1989, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[115]  J. Faergemann,et al.  Propylene glycol in the treatment of tinea versicolor. , 1980, Acta dermato-venereologica.

[116]  S. Dutta,et al.  Pityriasis versicolor: socioeconomic and clinico‐mycologic study in India , 2002, International journal of dermatology.

[117]  J. Tschen,et al.  White piedra: evidence for a synergistic infection , 1990, The British journal of dermatology.

[118]  T. Berger,et al.  Common superficial fungal infections in patients with AIDS. , 1996, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[119]  Schwartz Ra,et al.  Pityrosporum folliculitis: a common acneiform condition of middle age. , 1981 .