Recent Advances in Electrochemical Sensors for Detecting Weapons of Mass Destruction. A Review

The detection of chemical warfare agents (CWA) has become a worldwide security concern in light of the many recent international threats utilizing nerve agents. Among a variety of detection methods that have been developed for CWA, electrochemical sensors offer the unrivaled merits of high sensitivity, specificity and operational simplicity. Recent insights into novel fabrication methodologies and electrochemical techniques have resulted in the demonstration of electrochemical sensors able to address many of the limitations of conventional methodologies. This article reviews recent advances and developments in the field of electrochemical biosensors based detection of nerve agent and their utility for decentralized threat detection. With continued innovations and attention to key challenges, it is expected that electrochemical sensors will play a pivotal role in the CWA detection scenario. This review concludes with the implications of the electrochemical sensing platforms along with future prospects and challenges.

[1]  Jian Ji,et al.  The Escherichia coli O157:H7 DNA detection on a gold nanoparticle-enhanced piezoelectric biosensor , 2008 .

[2]  Cheng Zheng,et al.  Sensitive electrochemical microbial biosensor for p-nitrophenylorganophosphates based on electrode modified with cell surface-displayed organophosphorus hydrolase and ordered mesopore carbons. , 2014, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[3]  Young Je Yoo,et al.  A novel organophosphorus hydrolase-based biosensor using mesoporous carbons and carbon black for the detection of organophosphate nerve agents. , 2010, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[4]  Susan R. Mikkelsen,et al.  Electrochecmical biosensors for DNA sequence detection , 1996 .

[5]  Susan S. Taylor,et al.  Primary structure of Torpedo californica acetylcholinesterase deduced from its cDNA sequence , 1986, Nature.

[6]  A. Abad‐Fuentes,et al.  Applications of quantum dots as probes in immunosensing of small-sized analytes. , 2013, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[7]  Q. Hu,et al.  Electrochemical sensor based on molecularly imprinted polymer reduced graphene oxide and gold nanoparticles modified electrode for detection of carbofuran , 2015 .

[8]  Elena Piletska,et al.  Electrochemical impedimetric sensor based on molecularly imprinted polymers/sol-gel chemistry for methidathion organophosphorous insecticide recognition. , 2014, Talanta.

[9]  Sang Yup Lee,et al.  Solution chemistry of self-assembled graphene nanohybrids for high-performance flexible biosensors. , 2010, ACS nano.

[10]  A. Avramescu,et al.  Detection of organophosphorus insecticides with immobilized acetylcholinesterase – comparative study of two enzyme sensors , 2002, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[11]  Yu Lei,et al.  Ultrasensitive and selective non-enzymatic glucose detection using copper nanowires. , 2012, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[12]  D. Munnecke,et al.  Enzymic detoxification of waste organophosphate pesticides , 1980 .

[13]  Alexander M. Yacynych,et al.  Use of polymer films in amperometric biosensors , 1995 .

[14]  Joseph Wang,et al.  Tattoo‐Based Wearable Electrochemical Devices: A Review , 2015 .

[15]  Masato Saito,et al.  Nanomaterial-based electrochemical biosensors for medical applications , 2008 .

[16]  Samuel S. R. Dasary,et al.  Gold Nanoparticle Based Surface Enhanced Fluorescence For Detection of Organophosphorus Agents. , 2008, Chemical physics letters.

[17]  Yuehe Lin,et al.  Study of Inhibition, Reactivation and Aging Processes of Pesticides Using Graphene Nanosheets/Gold Nanoparticles-Based Acetylcholinesterase Biosensor , 2012 .

[18]  S. Timur,et al.  An acetylcholinesterase biosensor based on a conducting polymer using multiwalled carbon nanotubes for amperometric detection of organophosphorous pesticides , 2014 .

[19]  T. G. Drummond,et al.  Electrochemical DNA sensors , 2003, Nature Biotechnology.

[20]  Grégoire Herzog,et al.  Electrochemical strategies for the label-free detection of amino acids, peptides and proteins. , 2007, The Analyst.

[21]  Long Yang,et al.  Development of a biosensor based on immobilization of acetylcholinesterase on NiO nanoparticles-carboxylic graphene-nafion modified electrode for detection of pesticides. , 2013, Talanta.

[22]  Danila Moscone,et al.  Characterisation of Prussian blue modified screen-printed electrodes for thiol detection , 2004 .

[23]  Dandan Song,et al.  Facile synthesis of zirconia nanoparticles-decorated graphene hybrid nanosheets for an enzymeless methyl parathion sensor , 2012 .

[24]  T Okumura,et al.  The Tokyo subway sarin attack: disaster management, Part 2: Hospital response. , 1998, Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine.

[25]  Zhiyong Tang,et al.  Highly-sensitive organophosphorous pesticide biosensors based on nanostructured films of acetylcholinesterase and CdTe quantum dots. , 2011, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[26]  Tianshu Zhou,et al.  A molecularly imprinted polymer based on functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes for the electrochemical detection of parathion-methyl. , 2012, The Analyst.

[27]  Jianying Zhu,et al.  Amperometric biosensor based on immobilization of acetylcholinesterase via specific binding on biocompatible boronic acid-functionalized Fe@Au magnetic nanoparticles , 2012, Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry.

[28]  Kun Wang,et al.  TiO2-decorated graphene nanohybrids for fabricating an amperometric acetylcholinesterase biosensor. , 2011, The Analyst.

[29]  Dan Du,et al.  One-step electrochemical deposition of a graphene-ZrO2 nanocomposite , 2011 .

[30]  G. Chaudhry,et al.  Microbiological and biotechnological aspects of metabolism of carbamates and organophosphates. , 1992, Critical reviews in biotechnology.

[31]  K. Ganesan,et al.  Chemical warfare agents , 2010, Journal of pharmacy & bioallied sciences.

[32]  Orawon Chailapakul,et al.  Nanoparticle-based electrochemical detection in conventional and miniaturized systems and their bioanalytical applications: a review. , 2011, Analytica chimica acta.

[33]  Jean-Louis Marty,et al.  Adsorption: an easy and efficient immobilisation of acetylcholinesterase on screen-printed electrodes , 2003 .

[34]  Guodong Liu,et al.  Biosensor based on self-assembling acetylcholinesterase on carbon nanotubes for flow injection/amperometric detection of organophosphate pesticides and nerve agents. , 2006, Analytical chemistry.

[35]  Lucian-Gabriel Zamfir,et al.  A rational design of the multiwalled carbon nanotube-7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethan sensor for sensitive detection of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors. , 2012, Analytica chimica acta.

[36]  Long Yang,et al.  An acetylcholinesterase biosensor based on platinum nanoparticles-carboxylic graphene-nafion-modified electrode for detection of pesticides. , 2013, Analytical biochemistry.

[37]  Dan Du,et al.  Comparison of pesticide sensitivity by electrochemical test based on acetylcholinesterase biosensor. , 2007, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[38]  N. Chaniotakis,et al.  Genetically engineered acetylcholinesterase-based biosensor for attomolar detection of dichlorvos. , 2005, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[39]  Na Wang,et al.  An ultra-sensitive acetylcholinesterase biosensor based on reduced graphene oxide-Au nanoparticles-β-cyclodextrin/Prussian blue-chitosan nanocomposites for organophosphorus pesticides detection. , 2015, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[40]  O. Uy,et al.  Polymer-based lanthanide luminescent sensor for detection of the hydrolysis product of the nerve agent Soman in water. , 1999, Analytical chemistry.

[41]  Mingdeng Wei,et al.  Ultrasensitive electrochemical sensor for p-nitrophenyl organophosphates based on ordered mesoporous carbons at low potential without deoxygenization. , 2014, Analytica chimica acta.

[42]  Yi Lu,et al.  A catalytic beacon sensor for uranium with parts-per-trillion sensitivity and millionfold selectivity , 2007, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[43]  Kun Wang,et al.  A highly sensitive and rapid organophosphate biosensor based on enhancement of CdS-decorated graphene nanocomposite. , 2011, Analytica chimica acta.

[44]  U. Brinkman,et al.  Analytical separation techniques for the determination of chemical warfare agents. , 2002, Journal of chromatography. A.

[45]  Yu Lei,et al.  A highly efficient organophosphorus pesticides sensor based on CuO nanowires–SWCNTs hybrid nanocomposite , 2014 .

[46]  Wenping Zhao,et al.  Acetylcholinesterase biosensor based on chitosan/prussian blue/multiwall carbon nanotubes/hollow gold nanospheres nanocomposite film by one-step electrodeposition. , 2013, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[47]  N. Chaniotakis,et al.  Tuning the sol-gel microenvironment for acetylcholinesterase encapsulation. , 2005, Biomaterials.

[48]  Qin Xu,et al.  A novel photoelectrochemical sensor for the organophosphorus pesticide dichlofenthion based on nanometer-sized titania coupled with a screen-printed electrode. , 2011, Analytical chemistry.

[49]  Aleksandr Simonian,et al.  Enhanced stability of enzyme organophosphate hydrolase interfaced on the carbon nanotubes. , 2010, Colloids and surfaces. B, Biointerfaces.

[50]  Dan Du,et al.  The vital function of Fe3O4@Au nanocomposites for hydrolase biosensor design and its application in detection of methyl parathion. , 2013, Nanoscale.

[51]  Mary A. Arugula,et al.  Layer-by-layer assembled carbon nanotube-acetylcholinesterase/biopolymer renewable interfaces: SPR and electrochemical characterization. , 2015, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[52]  A. Pietrzyk,et al.  Molecularly imprinted poly[bis(2,2'-bithienyl)methane] film with built-in molecular recognition sites for a piezoelectric microgravimetry chemosensor for selective determination of dopamine. , 2010, Bioelectrochemistry.

[53]  J. Wild,et al.  A New Approach For Discriminative Detection of Organophosphate Neurotoxins in the Presence of Other Cholinesterase Inhibitors , 1997 .

[54]  C. Meng,et al.  Electrochemically reduced graphene oxide and Nafion nanocomposite for ultralow potential detection of organophosphate pesticide , 2013 .

[55]  Jinhuai Liu,et al.  Polishing-activated nano α-Al2O3: Adsorption and electrochemical behavior toward organophosphate pesticides , 2012 .

[56]  Jingyan Zhang,et al.  Graphene quantum dots/gold electrode and its application in living cell H2O2 detection. , 2013, Nanoscale.

[57]  Peng Ju,et al.  Acetylcholinesterase biosensor based on 3-carboxyphenylboronic acid/reduced graphene oxide–gold nanocomposites modified electrode for amperometric detection of organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides , 2011 .

[58]  E. Turiel,et al.  Molecular recognition in a propazine-imprinted polymer and its application to the determination of triazines in environmental samples. , 2001, Analytical chemistry.

[59]  Wei Zhao,et al.  Controlled immobilization of acetylcholinesterase on improved hydrophobic gold nanoparticle/Prussian blue modified surface for ultra-trace organophosphate pesticide detection. , 2011, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[60]  Rajagopalan Vijayaraghavan,et al.  Greener Electrochemical Synthesis of High Quality Graphene Nanosheets Directly from Pencil and its SPR Sensing Application , 2012 .

[61]  Dan Du,et al.  Acetylcholinesterase biosensor design based on carbon nanotube-encapsulated polypyrrole and polyaniline copolymer for amperometric detection of organophosphates. , 2010, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[62]  Guangxia Yu,et al.  Efficient immobilization of acetylcholinesterase onto amino functionalized carbon nanotubes for the fabrication of high sensitive organophosphorus pesticides biosensors. , 2015, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[63]  Abdullah Mohamed Asiri,et al.  Acetylcholinesterase biosensor based on a gold nanoparticle-polypyrrole-reduced graphene oxide nanocomposite modified electrode for the amperometric detection of organophosphorus pesticides. , 2014, The Analyst.

[64]  Nidhi Chauhan,et al.  An amperometric biosensor based on acetylcholinesterase immobilized onto iron oxide nanoparticles/multi-walled carbon nanotubes modified gold electrode for measurement of organophosphorus insecticides. , 2011, Analytica chimica acta.

[65]  Lucian-Gabriel Zamfir,et al.  A novel, sensitive, reusable and low potential acetylcholinesterase biosensor for chlorpyrifos based on 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate/multiwalled carbon nanotubes gel. , 2011, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[66]  W. Liu,et al.  Facile green synthesis of graphene-Au nanorod nanoassembly for on-line extraction and sensitive stripping analysis of methyl parathion , 2014 .

[67]  F. Zhao,et al.  Electrochemical determination of methyl parathion using a molecularly imprinted polymer–ionic liquid–graphene composite film coated electrode , 2013 .

[68]  Miroslav Fojta,et al.  Voltammetry of native double-stranded, denatured and degraded DNAs , 1997 .

[69]  Erkang Wang,et al.  Synthesis and electrochemical applications of gold nanoparticles. , 2007, Analytica chimica acta.

[70]  Eeva-Liisa Tolppa,et al.  Detection of Trace Amounts of Chemical Warfare Agents and Related Compounds in Rubber, Paint, and Soil Samples by 1H and 31P{1H} NMR Spectroscopy , 1996 .

[71]  M. Pumera,et al.  Towards Graphane Applications in Security: The Electrochemical Detection of Trinitrotoluene in Seawater on Hydrogenated Graphene , 2014 .

[72]  J Wang,et al.  Electroanalysis and biosensors. , 1993, Analytical chemistry.

[73]  B. J. Venton,et al.  Review: Carbon nanotube based electrochemical sensors for biomolecules. , 2010, Analytica chimica acta.

[74]  R. Devan,et al.  One‐Dimensional Metal‐Oxide Nanostructures: Recent Developments in Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications , 2012 .

[75]  Ying Wang,et al.  Self assembly of acetylcholinesterase on a gold nanoparticles-graphene nanosheet hybrid for organophosphate pesticide detection using polyelectrolyte as a linker , 2011 .

[76]  Y. Dilgin,et al.  A novel impedimetric sensor based on molecularly imprinted polypyrrole modified pencil graphite electrode for trace level determination of chlorpyrifos , 2013 .

[77]  J. Wild,et al.  The development of a new biosensor based on recombinant E. coli for the direct detection of organophosphorus neurotoxins. , 1996, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[78]  L. Hoffland,et al.  Determination of chemical warfare agent degradation products at low-part-per-billion levels in aqueous samples and sub-part-per-million levels in soils using capillary electrophoresis. , 1999, Analytical chemistry.

[79]  T. Satake,et al.  A micro IrOx potentiometric sensor for direct determination of organophosphate pesticides , 2015 .

[80]  M. Muldoon,et al.  Molecularly imprinted solid phase extraction of atrazine from beef liver extracts. , 1997, Analytical chemistry.

[81]  M. Yoshikawa,et al.  Molecularly imprinted nanofiber membranes from cellulose acetate aimed for chiral separation , 2010 .

[82]  Yingying Zheng,et al.  An acetylcholinesterase biosensor based on ionic liquid functionalized graphene–gelatin-modified electrode for sensitive detection of pesticides , 2015 .

[83]  Yavor Ivanov,et al.  Amperometric acetylthiocholine sensor based on acetylcholinesterase immobilized on nanostructured polymer membrane containing gold nanoparticles , 2010 .

[84]  S. Ramaprabhu,et al.  Fabrication of Organophosphorus Biosensor Using ZnO Nanoparticle-Decorated Carbon Nanotube–Graphene Hybrid Composite Prepared by a Novel Green Technique , 2013 .

[85]  G. Han,et al.  Porous-reduced graphene oxide for fabricating an amperometric acetylcholinesterase biosensor , 2013 .

[86]  L Szinicz,et al.  History of chemical and biological warfare agents. , 2005, Toxicology.

[87]  S. Ai,et al.  Innovative approach for the electrochemical detection of non-electroactive organophosphorus pesticides using oxime as electroactive probe. , 2015, Analytica chimica acta.

[88]  Anthony P O'Mullane,et al.  Electrochemical fabrication of metallic nanostructured electrodes for electroanalytical applications. , 2011, The Analyst.

[89]  Yuehua Qin,et al.  One-step synthesis of multiwalled carbon nanotubes-gold nanocomposites for fabricating amperometric acetylcholinesterase biosensor , 2010 .

[90]  Dan Du,et al.  Assembly of carbon nanotubes on a nanoporous gold electrode for acetylcholinesterase biosensor design , 2014 .

[91]  Joseph Wang.  SURVEY AND SUMMARY From DNA biosensors to gene chips , 2000 .

[92]  Julian Ramírez,et al.  Solid-state Forensic Finger sensor for integrated sampling and detection of gunshot residue and explosives: towards 'Lab-on-a-finger'. , 2013, The Analyst.