Mutualism or cooperation among competitors promotes coexistence and competitive ability

Abstract In the Lotka-Volterra competition model and similar competition models, species can only coexist if between-species competition is weaker than within species. Prior modeling and field studies have shown that coexistence can be promoted by reducing the competitive ability between species through spatial or temporal niche differentiation. Colonization, disturbance, aggregations in patchy habitats, resource transport and supply rates, predation, sex ratio mediation have been suggested to promote species coexistence. The role of mutualism in promoting species coexistence has never been quantitatively studied. In this study, by starting from the traditional Lotka-Volterra competition model, a new general model with introduction of mutualism between two competitive species is proposed. We hypothesized that the interaction of one species to the other is flexible instead of always negative; the zero growth isoclines of the competing species are parabolic. Three conclusions are drawn from this modeling study. First, mutualism is a new way of promoting coexistences of two species. Second, mutualism often increases the carrying capacities of both species, and then promotes their competitive abilities. Third, the mutualism-competition model is also appropriate to describe the dynamics of cooperation and competition between individuals or groups within species, and mutualism between plants and animals. The behind mechanism lies in mutualism or cooperation reduced the severity of competition at low density. Inferior competitor, if cooperative to superior competitor, is also possible to survive. Since mutualism or cooperation is commonly seen among competitors or between prey and predators, its role in shaping social or community structure is worth to explore.

[1]  S Pavlou,et al.  Oscillations of two competing microbial populations in configurations of two interconnected chemostats. , 1998, Mathematical biosciences.

[2]  F. Weiling Lotka, A. J.: Elements of Mathematical Biology. Dover Publications Inc., New‐York 1956; XXX + 465 S., 72 Abb., 36 Tabellen und 4 Übersichtstabellen im Anhang, Preis $ 2,45 , 1965 .

[3]  V. Volterra Fluctuations in the Abundance of a Species considered Mathematically , 1926 .

[4]  M. Huston A General Hypothesis of Species Diversity , 1979, The American Naturalist.

[5]  P. Hambäck Seasonality, Optimal Foraging, and Prey Coexistence , 1998, The American Naturalist.

[6]  J. Connell Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. , 1978, Science.

[7]  L. Gottlieb,et al.  Plant Evolutionary Biology , 1988, Springer Netherlands.

[8]  ROBERT M. MAY,et al.  Will a Large Complex System be Stable? , 1972, Nature.

[9]  Hanski,et al.  Sexual Reproduction and Stable Coexistence of Identical Competitors. , 1998, Journal of theoretical biology.

[10]  J. P. Grime,et al.  The C-S-R model of primary plant strategies — origins, implications and tests , 1988 .

[11]  I. Hanski Coexistence of competitors in patchy environment with and without predation , 1981 .

[12]  I. Hanski,et al.  Migration, Metapopulation Dynamics and Fugitive Co-existence , 1993 .

[13]  George H. Leonard,et al.  THE ROLE OF POSITIVE INTERACTIONS IN COMMUNITIES: LESSONS FROM INTERTIDAL HABITATS , 1997 .

[14]  Stephen P. Hubbell,et al.  Tree Dispersion, Abundance, and Diversity in a Tropical Dry Forest , 1979, Science.

[15]  A. Hector The effect of diversity on productivity : detecting the role of species complementarity , 1998 .

[16]  A. Hastings Disturbance, coexistence, history, and competition for space , 1980 .

[17]  J. P. Grime,et al.  Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning: Current Knowledge and Future Challenges , 2001, Science.

[18]  P. Chesson,et al.  A need for niches? , 1991, Trends in ecology & evolution.

[19]  J. Fridley The influence of species diversity on ecosystem productivity: how, where, and why? , 2001 .

[20]  Robert M. May,et al.  Dynamics of metapopulations : habitat destruction and competitive coexistence , 1992 .

[21]  K. Kikuzawa,et al.  Dispersal of Quercus mongolica acorns in a broadleaved deciduous forest 2. Scatterhoarding by mice , 1988 .

[22]  Hannu Rita,et al.  Competition in a Group of Equal Foragers , 1998, The American Naturalist.

[23]  S. Pavlou,et al.  Coexistence of three microbial populations competing for three complementary nutrients in a chemostat. , 1999, Mathematical biosciences.

[24]  Wenqin Zhong,et al.  Ecological Management of Brandt ’ s Vole ( Microtus brandti ) in Inner Mongolia , China , 1999 .

[25]  B. Drossel,et al.  The influence of predator--prey population dynamics on the long-term evolution of food web structure. , 2000, Journal of theoretical biology.

[26]  M. Crawley Herbivory: the Dynamics of Animal-plant Interactions , 1984 .

[27]  T. S. Jensen,et al.  Rodents as seed dispersers in a heath — oak wood succession , 1986, Oecologia.

[28]  J. P. Grime,et al.  Mycorrhizal infection and plant species diversity , 1988, Nature.

[29]  M. Leibold Do nutrient-competition models predict nutrient availabilities in limnetic ecosystems? , 1997, Oecologia.

[30]  Robert M. May,et al.  Estimating r: A Pedagogical Note , 1976, The American Naturalist.

[31]  M. Crawley,et al.  Mycorrhizal infection and plant species diversity , 1988, Nature.

[32]  V. Sork Examination of Seed Dispersal and Survival in Red Oak, Quercus Rubra (Fagaceae), Using Metal‐Tagged Acorns , 1984 .

[33]  Kui Lin,et al.  THE EFFECTS OF COMPETITIVE ASYMMETRY ON THE RATE OF COMPETITIVE DISPLACEMENT : HOW ROBUST IS HUBBELL'S COMMUNITY DRIFT MODEL? , 1997 .

[34]  Alun L. Lloyd,et al.  Computing Bouts of the Prisoner's Dilemma , 1995 .

[35]  J. Koella,et al.  The spatial spread of altruism versus the evolutionary response of egoists , 2000, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences.

[36]  Robert M. May,et al.  Stability and Complexity in Model Ecosystems , 2019, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics.

[37]  B. Shorrocks,et al.  Competition on a Divided and Ephemeral Resource: A Simulation Model , 1981 .

[38]  C. Krebs Ecology: The Experimental Analysis of Distribution and Abundance , 1973 .

[39]  I. Hanski,et al.  Coexistence in a Patchy Environment: Three Species of Daphnia in Rock Pools , 1983 .

[40]  E. Renshaw Modelling biological populations in space and time: Spatial predator–prey systems , 1991 .

[41]  D. Tilman Resource competition and community structure. , 1983, Monographs in population biology.

[42]  H. Leirs,et al.  Ecologically-Based Management of Rodent Pests , 1999 .

[43]  T. Fagerström Lotteries in communities of sessile organisms. , 1988, Trends in ecology & evolution.

[44]  D. Tilman Competition and Biodiversity in Spatially Structured Habitats , 1994 .

[45]  J. Herrera Acorn predation and seedling production in a low-density population of cork oak (Quercus suber L.) , 1995 .

[46]  J. Kaiser Rift Over Biodiversity Divides Ecologists , 2000, Science.

[47]  P. Reich,et al.  Diversity and Productivity in a Long-Term Grassland Experiment , 2001, Science.

[48]  S. McNaughton,et al.  Serengeti Migratory Wildebeest: Facilitation of Energy Flow by Grazing , 1976, Science.

[49]  Differential selection in sexes, genetic drift, and stable coexistence of identical species , 1993 .

[50]  R. Paine Food Web Complexity and Species Diversity , 1966, The American Naturalist.

[51]  John H. Holland,et al.  Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems: An Introductory Analysis with Applications to Biology, Control, and Artificial Intelligence , 1992 .

[52]  V. Volterra Fluctuations in the Abundance of a Species considered Mathematically , 1926, Nature.

[53]  G. Hardin The competitive exclusion principle. , 1960, Science.

[54]  S. Díaz,et al.  Vive la différence: plant functional diversity matters to ecosystem processes , 2001 .

[55]  William F. Fagan,et al.  Nutritional constraints in terrestrial and freshwater food webs , 2000, Nature.

[56]  Yang Kuang,et al.  Stoichiometry in producer-grazer systems: Linking energy flow with element cycling , 2000, Bulletin of mathematical biology.

[57]  D. DeAngelis,et al.  Competition and Coexistence: The Effects of Resource Transport and Supply Rates , 1994, The American Naturalist.

[58]  P. J. Hughesdon,et al.  The Struggle for Existence , 1927, Nature.

[59]  A. J. Lotka Elements of Physical Biology. , 1925, Nature.