Towards a theory of privacy in the information age

When we think of ethical problems involving computing probably none is more paradigmatic than the issue of privacy. Given the ability of computers to manipulate information to store endlessly, to sort efficiently, and to locate effortlessly we are justifiably concerned that in a computerized society our privacy may be invaded and that information harmful to us will be revealed. Of course, we are reluctant to give up the advantages of speedy and convenient computerized information. We appreciate the easy access to computerized data when making reservations, using automatic teller machines, buying new products on the web, or investigating topics in computer data bases. Our challenge is to take advantage of computing without allowing computing to take advantage of us. When information is computerized, it is greasedto slide easily and quickly to many ports of call. This makes information retrieval quick and convenient. But legitimate concerns about privacy arise when this speed and convenience lead to the improper exposure of information. Greased information is information that moves like lightning and is hard to hold onto. Consider, for example, listed telephone numbers which have been routinely available through a telephone operator and a telephone book but which now are available along with address information in giant electronic phone books on the internet. The Hanover, New Hampshire telephone book (the telephone book for where I live) is rather hard to locate in most places in the world, but now anyone in the world with access to the internet can easily find out my phone number, who my wife is, and where I live. One can even retrieve a map of my residential area. 1 don't consider this to be a breach of privacy, but I use it to point out how the same information, which has technically been public for a long time, can dramatically change levels of accessibility practically speaking when put into electronic form on computer networks. It is ironic that my name may be hard to find in the internet phone book in that it is listed there anachronistically in an abbreviated form. "James" is abbreviated as "Jas," an abbreviation I never use and have seen only in old print phone books, presumably introduced to save print space but mindlessly copied when put on the internet. Don't tell anyone. The greasing of information makes information so easy to access that it can be used again and again. Computers have elephant memories big, accurate, and long term. The ability of computers to remember so well for so long undercuts a human frailty that assists privacy. We, humans, forget most things. Most short term memories don't even make it to long term memory. Every time I go to a busy supermarket I am a new customer. Who can remember what I bought the last time I was there? Actually, a computer does. Most of the time I shop at a cooperative food store that gives a rebate at the end of the year. When I buy food, I give the checkout person my account number (I can remember at least that most days). The checkout person scans my purchases which appear on a screen by the name of the item and its price. This information is definitely greased. It appears as quickly as the checker can move the items across the barcode reader. Then my total is displayed and the information is added to my grand total of purchases on which I get a certain percentage back each year. Notice that in addition to the total of my purchases the market also has information about what I have purchased. It helps the market keep track of its inventory. But, it also means that the store has a profile on my buying habits. They know how much wine I purchase, my fondness for Raisin Bran cereal, and the kind of vegetables I prefer. In principle, such evidence could be subpoenaed if my eating habits were relevant to a court case. Does this accumulation of information violate my privacy. I suppose not, but it is greased so that it moves easily and is more accessible over a longer period of time than ever before. Practically speaking, the information is never forgotten. A documented history of purchases generates the possibility for an invasion of privacy that does not exist without it. In the case of my food shopping the collection of information is obvious to me. I can see my eating habits and my limited will power flash on the display screen as the calories tumble by on the conveyor. But information about us can be collected subtlety when we don't realize it. The greasing of information allows other computers to capture and manipulate information in ways we do not expect. Consider a final personal example to illustrate this. Not long ago I lived for a few months in Edinburgh. On days I didn't feel like cooking, I would sometimes order pizza. The pizza was delivered to my apartment and hence was a convenient way to get a quick meal. However, I was somewhat taken aback the second time I phoned the pizza establishment. Without my placing an order the pizzamakers already seemed to know my address and my favorite pizza. Did I want to have another medium pepperoni and mushroom delivered? I hadn't been in Edinburgh very long. How could they possibly know my taste (or lack of taste) so quickly? The answer, of course, was their use of caller ID. No mystery here. I had called before and given in-

[1]  J. Moor What Is Computer Ethics?* , 1985, The Ethics of Information Technologies.

[2]  J. Rachels Why privacy is important , 1985 .

[3]  J. Moor The ethics of privacy protection , 1990 .

[4]  James H. Moor,et al.  Reason, relativity, and responsibility in computer ethics , 1998, CSOC.