Making things happen: reciprocal relationships between work characteristics and personal initiative in a four-wave longitudinal structural equation model.

The authors used the frameworks of reciprocal determinism and occupational socialization to study the effects of work characteristics (consisting of control and complexity of work) on personal initiative (PI)--mediated by control orientation (a 2nd-order factor consisting of control aspiration, perceived opportunity for control, and self-efficacy) and the reciprocal effects of PI on changes in work characteristics. They applied structural equation modeling to a longitudinal study with 4 measurement waves (N = 268) in a transitional economy: East Germany. Results confirm the model plus 1 additional, nonhypothesized effect. Work characteristics had a synchronous effect on PI via control orientation (full mediation). There were also effects of control orientation and of PI on later changes in work characteristics: As predicted, PI functioned as partial mediator, changing work characteristics in the long term (reciprocal effect); unexpectedly, there was a 2nd reciprocal effect of an additional lagged partial mediation of control orientation on later work characteristics.

[1]  Richard P. DeShon,et al.  A motivated action theory account of goal orientation. , 2005, The Journal of applied psychology.

[2]  Jeffery A. Thompson,et al.  Proactive personality and job performance: a social capital perspective. , 2005, The Journal of applied psychology.

[3]  M. D. Dunnette.  Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology , 2005 .

[4]  M. Frese,et al.  Innovation is not enough: climates for initiative and psychological safety, process innovations, and firm performance , 2003 .

[5]  Dennis L. Jackson.  Revisiting Sample Size and Number of Parameter Estimates: Some Support for the N:q Hypothesis , 2003 .

[6]  T. Wall,et al.  Work characteristics, learning-related outcomes, and strain: a test of competing direct effects, mediated, and moderated models. , 2002, Journal of occupational health psychology.

[7]  Michael A. Campion,et al.  MINIMIZING TRADEOFFS WHEN REDESIGNING WORK: EVIDENCE FROM A LONGITUDINAL QUASI‐EXPERIMENT , 2002 .

[8]  D. Fay,et al.  Rethinking the effects of stressors: a longitudinal study on personal initiative. , 2002, Journal of occupational health psychology.

[9]  Maria L. Kraimer,et al.  WHAT DO PROACTIVE PEOPLE DO? A LONGITUDINAL MODEL LINKING PROACTIVE PERSONALITY AND CAREER SUCCESS , 2001 .

[10]  T. Mitchell,et al.  Building Better Theory: Time and The Specification of When Things Happen , 2001 .

[11]  J. Dutton,et al.  Crafting a Job: Revisioning Employees as Active Crafters of Their Work , 2001 .

[12]  L. Eyde,et al.  Psychological testing and psychological assessment. A review of evidence and issues. , 2001, The American psychologist.

[13]  Michael Frese,et al.  The Concept of Personal Initiative: An Overview of Validity Studies , 2001 .

[14]  E. Pulakos,et al.  Adaptability in the workplace: development of a taxonomy of adaptive performance. , 2000, The Journal of applied psychology.

[15]  R. Bagozzi,et al.  On the nature and direction of relationships between constructs and measures. , 2000, Psychological methods.

[16]  David E. Booth,et al.  Analysis of Incomplete Multivariate Data , 2000, Technometrics.

[17]  A. Büssing,et al.  Can Control at Work and Social Support Moderate Psychological Consequences of Job Insecurity? Results from a Quasi-experimental Study in the Steel Industry , 1999 .

[18]  S. Parker,et al.  Enhancing role breadth self-efficacy: the roles of job enrichment and other organizational interventions. , 1998, The Journal of applied psychology.

[19]  T. Begley,et al.  Coping strategies as predictors of employee distress and turnover after an organizational consolidation: A longitudinal analysis , 1998 .

[20]  H W Marsh,et al.  Is More Ever Too Much? The Number of Indicators per Factor in Confirmatory Factor Analysis. , 1998, Multivariate behavioral research.

[21]  Arthur Schopenhauer,et al.  Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. , 1998 .

[22]  Jeffrey B. Vancouver,et al.  The Application of HLM to the Analysis of the Dynamic Interaction of Environment, Person and Behavior , 1997 .

[23]  A. Bandura.  Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control , 1997, Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy.

[24]  S. Parker,et al.  "THAT'S NOT MY JOB": DEVELOPING FLEXIBLE EMPLOYEE WORK ORIENTATIONS , 1997 .

[25]  Michael Frese,et al.  The concept of personal initiative: Operationalization, reliability and validity in two German samples , 1997 .

[26]  Michael Frese,et al.  Generalized Self Efficacy As a Mediator and Moderator Between Control and Complexity at Work and Personal Initiative: A Longitudinal Field Study in East Germany , 1997 .

[27]  Stephen G. Green,et al.  Development of Leader-Member Exchange: A Longitudinal Test , 1996 .

[28]  D. Hall.  Protean Careers of the 21st Century , 1996 .

[29]  Charles C. Manz,et al.  Thought self-leadership: the impact of mental strategies training on employee cognition, behavior, and affect' , 1996 .

[30]  M. Frese,et al.  Longitudinal studies in organizational stress research: a review of the literature with reference to methodological issues. , 1996, Journal of occupational health psychology.

[31]  R. P. McDonald,et al.  Path Analysis with Composite Variables. , 1996, Multivariate behavioral research.

[32]  Michael Frese,et al.  Personal initiative at work: Differences between East and West Germany , 1996 .

[33]  Paul R. Sackett,et al.  Gravitation to jobs commensurate with ability: Longitudinal and cross-sectional tests. , 1995 .

[34]  R. Schulz,et al.  A life-span theory of control. , 1995, Psychological review.

[35]  Chih-Ping Chou,et al.  Measurement invariance in longitudinal clinical research assuming change from development and intervention. , 1994, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[36]  R. MacCallum,et al.  The use of causal indicators in covariance structure models: some practical issues. , 1993, Psychological bulletin.

[37]  E. Morrison,et al.  Longitudinal study of the effects of information seeking on newcomer socialization , 1993 .

[38]  D. Zapf.  Stress-oriented Analysis of Computerized Office Work , 1993 .

[39]  Julius Kuhl,et al.  A Theory of Self-regulation: Action versus State Orientation, Self-discrimination, and Some Applications , 1992 .

[40]  R. H. Franke.  The Ultimate Advantage: Creating the High-Involvement OrganizationThe Ultimate Advantage: Creating the High-Involvement Organization By LawlerEdward E.III, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1992—371 pages. $29.95 , 1992 .

[41]  Anne S. Tsui,et al.  SELF-REGULATION FOR MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS: THE ROLE OF ACTIVE FEEDBACK SEEKING , 1991 .

[42]  Barry M. Staw,et al.  Task Revision: A Neglected Form of Work Performance , 1990 .

[43]  Jacob Cohen,et al.  Problems in the Measurement of Latent Variables in Structural Equations Causal Models , 1990 .

[44]  Robert Karasek,et al.  Healthy Work : Stress, Productivity, and the Reconstruction of Working Life , 1990 .

[45]  D. A. Kenny,et al.  On the measurement of stability in over-time data. , 1989, Journal of personality.

[46]  R. P. McDonald,et al.  Structural Equations with Latent Variables , 1989 .

[47]  B. Byrne,et al.  Testing for the equivalence of factor covariance and mean structures: The issue of partial measurement invariance. , 1989 .

[48]  R. Bies,et al.  Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Good Soldier Syndrome , 1989 .

[49]  James C. Anderson,et al.  STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING IN PRACTICE: A REVIEW AND RECOMMENDED TWO-STEP APPROACH , 1988 .

[50]  H. Akaike.  Factor analysis and AIC , 1987 .

[51]  Gary P. Latham,et al.  Application of social learning theory to employee self-management of attendance , 1987 .

[52]  Peter M. Bentler,et al.  Practical Issues in Structural Modeling , 1987 .

[53]  Paul E. Spector.  Perceived Control by Employees: A Meta-Analysis of Studies Concerning Autonomy and Participation at Work , 1986 .

[54]  R. Wood.  Task complexity: Definition of the construct , 1986 .

[55]  Gary P. Latham,et al.  Do people do what they say? Further studies on the situational interview. , 1984 .

[56]  J. Dwyer,et al.  Statistical Models for the Social and Behavioral Sciences , 1983 .

[57]  Michael Frese,et al.  Occupational socialization and psychological development: An underemphasized research perspective in industrial psychology , 1982 .

[58]  Carmi Schooler,et al.  The Reciprocal Effects of the Substantive Complexity of Work and Intellectual Flexibility: A Longitudinal Assessment , 1978, American Journal of Sociology.

[59]  Chris W. Clegg,et al.  An evaluation of the Job Characteristics Model , 1978 .

[60]  M. Seligman,et al.  Learned helplessness in humans: critique and reformulation. , 1978, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[61]  Robert Dubin,et al.  Handbook of work, organization, and society , 1976 .

[62]  Richard,et al.  Motivation through the Design of Work: Test of a Theory. , 1976 .

[63]  J. Kemp,et al.  The World As Will And Idea , 1975 .

[64]  V. Vroom.  Work and motivation , 1964 .

[65]  M. Frese.  Do workers want control at work or don't they : Some results on denial and adjustment , 2008 .

[66]  T. Wall,et al.  Empowerment, Performance, and Operational Uncertainty: A Theoretical Integration , 2002 .

[67]  M. Frese,et al.  4. Personal initiative: An active performance concept for work in the 21st century , 2001 .

[68]  M. Frese,et al.  Conservatives' Approach to Work: Less Prepared for Future Work Demands?1 , 2000 .

[69]  P. Bentler,et al.  Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis : Conventional criteria versus new alternatives , 1999 .

[70]  Paul E. Spector,et al.  Development of four self-report measures of job stressors and strain: Interpersonal Conflict at Work Scale, Organizational Constraints Scale, Quantitative Workload Inventory, and Physical Symptoms Inventory. , 1998, Journal of occupational health psychology.

[71]  D. Fay.  Personal initiative: Construct validation of a new concept of performance at work , 1998 .

[72]  Kerstin E. E. Schroder,et al.  The assessment of optimistic self-beliefs : Comparison of the German, Spanish, and Chinese versions of the general self-efficacy scale , 1997 .

[73]  Roger L. Brown.  Assessing specific mediational effects in complex theoretical models , 1997 .

[74]  M. Frese,et al.  "Mir ist es lieber, wenn ich genau gesagt bekomme, was ich tun mu[s": Probleme der Akzeptanz von Verantwortung und Handlungsspielraum in Ost und West. , 1994 .

[75]  Paul E. Spector.  A Consideration of the Validity and Meaning of Self-Report Measures of Job Conditions , 1992 .

[76]  Daniel R. Ilgen,et al.  The structure of work: Job design and roles. , 1991 .

[77]  R. Lennox,et al.  Conventional wisdom on measurement: A structural equation perspective. , 1991 .

[78]  Gary P. Latham,et al.  Behavioral approaches to the training and learning process. , 1989 .

[79]  Cary L. Cooper,et al.  Job control and worker health , 1989 .

[80]  Bernhard Wilpert,et al.  Applied psychology : an international review , 1989 .

[81]  G. Graen,et al.  Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing. , 1987 .

[82]  D. A. Kenny,et al.  The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. , 1986, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[83]  I. Robertson.  Learned helplessness. , 1986, Nursing times.

[84]  C. Cooper,et al.  International review of industrial and organizational psychology , 1986 .

[85]  J. Weisz,et al.  Changing the world and changing the self: A two-process model of perceived control. , 1982 .

[86]  B. Rohrmann.  Empirical studies on the development of answer scales for social science research. , 1978 .

[87]  J. Brehm,et al.  Responses to Uncontrollable Outcomes: An Integration of Reactance Theory and the Learned Helplessness Model1 , 1975 .

[88]  J. Hackman,et al.  Development of the Job Diagnostic Survey , 1975 .

[89]  R. A. Wicklund.  Freedom and reactance , 1974 .

[90]  June E. Chance,et al.  Applications of a social learning theory of personality , 1972 .

[91]  J. Rotter.  Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. , 1966, Psychological monographs.