Governing processes for reactive nitrogen compounds in the European atmosphere

Abstract. Reactive nitrogen (Nr) compounds have different fates in the atmosphere due to differences in the governing processes of physical transport, deposition and chemical transformation. Nr compounds addressed here include reduced nitrogen (NHx: ammonia (NH3) and its reaction product ammonium (NH4p)), oxidized nitrogen (NOy: nitrogen monoxide (NO) p nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and their reaction products) as well as organic nitrogen compounds (organic N). Pollution abatement strategies need to take into account the differences in the governing processes of these compounds when assessing their impact on ecosystem services, biodiversity, human health and climate. NOx (NO p NO2) emitted from traffic affects human health in urban areas where the presence of buildings increases the residence time in streets. In urban areas this leads to enhanced exposure of the population to NOx concentrations. NOx emissions generally have little impact on nearby ecosystems because of the small dry deposition rates of NOx. These compounds need to be converted into nitric acid (HNO3) before removal through deposition is efficient. HNO3 sticks quickly to any surface and is thereby either dry deposited or incorporated into aerosols as nitrate (NO3−). In contrast to NOx compounds, NH3 has potentially high impacts on ecosystems near the main agricultural sources of NH3 because of its large ground-level concentrations along with large dry deposition rates. Aerosol phase NH4p and NO3− contribute significantly to background PM2.5 and PM10 (mass of aerosols with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5 and 10 μm, respectively) with an impact on radiation balance as well as potentially on human health. Little is known quantitatively and qualitatively about organic N in the atmosphere, other than that it contributes a significant fraction of wet-deposited N, and is present in both gaseous and particulate forms. Further studies are needed to characterise the sources, air chemistry and removal rates of organic N emissions.

[1]  W. Slinn,et al.  Predictions for particle deposition to vegetative canopies , 1982 .

[2]  J. Duyzer.  Dry deposition of ammonia and ammonium aerosols over heathland , 1994 .

[3]  I. Trebs,et al.  Exchange of reactive nitrogen compounds: concentrations and fluxes of total ammonium and total nitrate above a spruce canopy , 2009 .

[4]  Wenche Aas,et al.  Trends of nitrogen in air and precipitation: model results and observations at EMEP sites in Europe, 1980--2003. , 2008, Environmental pollution.

[5]  Manfred Wendisch,et al.  The reduced nitrogen budget of an orographic cloud , 1997 .

[6]  Paul J. Crutzen,et al.  Emission of aliphatic amines from animal husbandry and their reactions: Potential source of N2O and HCN , 1995 .

[7]  J. W. Groenigen,et al.  Nitrogen losses from two grassland soils with different fungal biomass , 2011 .

[8]  Bertrand Bessagnet,et al.  Improving ammonia emissions in air quality modelling for France , 2014 .

[9]  M. H. Mikkelsen,et al.  Footprints on Ammonia Concentrations from Environmental Regulations , 2008, Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association.

[10]  R. Derwent,et al.  Transformation of Air Pollutants , 1998 .

[11]  Ross Strader,et al.  Airborne reduced nitrogen: ammonia emissions from agriculture and other sources. , 2003, Environment international.

[12]  Roy M. Harrison,et al.  Night-time chemistry above London: measurements of NO 3 and N 2 O 5 from the BT Tower , 2010 .

[13]  C. Spirig,et al.  The annual ammonia budget of fertilised cut grassland – Part 2: Seasonal variations and compensation point modeling , 2009 .

[14]  S C F Palmer,et al.  Concentrations of ammonia and nitrogen dioxide at roadside verges, and their contribution to nitrogen deposition. , 2004, Environmental pollution.

[15]  M. Sutton,et al.  Ammonia emissions from a Cape fur seal colony, Cape Cross, Namibia , 2006 .

[16]  Jan K. Schjoerring,et al.  Soil–plant–atmosphere ammonia exchange associated with calluna vulgaris and deschampsia flexuosa , 1998 .

[17]  A. Bleeker,et al.  Linking ammonia emission reduction and air concentrations and depositions of reduced nitrogen in Europe , 2006 .

[18]  Detlef P. van Vuuren,et al.  Global projections for anthropogenic reactive nitrogen emissions to the atmosphere: An assessment of scenarios in the scientific literature , 2011 .

[19]  T. Jickells,et al.  Comparisons of coarse-mode aerosol nitrate and ammonium at two polluted coastal sites , 2001 .

[20]  R. Harrison,et al.  Atmospheric chemical transformations of nitrogen compounds measured in the north sea experiment, September 1991 , 1994 .

[21]  P. Burge,et al.  Effect of domestic concentrations of nitrogen dioxide on airway responses to inhaled allergen in asthmatic patients , 1994, The Lancet.

[22]  D. Klemp,et al.  An upper limit on the HCl near-surface mixing ratio over the Atlantic measured using TDLAS , 1992 .

[23]  W. John,et al.  Measurement of aerosol size distributions for nitrate and major ionic species , 1988 .

[24]  P. Doskey,et al.  Measurements of peroxyacyl nitrates (PANS) in Mexico City: implications for megacity air quality impacts on regional scales , 1999 .

[25]  T. Meyers,et al.  Processes of ammonia air-surface exchange in a fertilized Zea mays canopy , 2012 .

[26]  D. Erickson,et al.  A general circulation model based calculation of HCl and ClNO2 production from sea salt dechlorination: Reactive Chlorine Emissions Inventory , 1999 .

[27]  R. Harrison,et al.  Measurements of Reaction Coefficients of NO2 and HONO on Aerosol Particles , 1998 .

[28]  Jan Frydendall,et al.  Operational mapping of atmospheric nitrogen deposition to the Baltic Sea , 2003 .

[29]  D. A. Oudendag,et al.  The Manure Model: manure, minerals (N, P and K), ammonia emission, heavy metals and the use of fertiliser in Dutch agriculture , 1998 .

[30]  R Milne,et al.  Challenges in quantifying biosphere-atmosphere exchange of nitrogen species. , 2007, Environmental pollution.

[31]  Asgeir Sorteberg,et al.  Two parametrizations of the dry deposition exchange for SO2 and NH3 in a numerical model , 1996 .

[32]  S. Cornell.  Atmospheric nitrogen deposition: revisiting the question of the importance of the organic component. , 2011, Environmental pollution.

[33]  Roy M. Harrison,et al.  The equilibrium of ammonium chloride aerosol with gaseous hydrochloric acid and ammonia under tropospheric conditions , 1987 .

[34]  C. Ambelas Skjøth,et al.  Use of the ACDEP trajectory model in the Danish nation-wide Background Monitoring Programme , 2002 .

[35]  Nicholas J. Hutchings,et al.  A detailed ammonia emission inventory for Denmark , 2001 .

[36]  Martin Johnson,et al.  Field observations of the ocean‐atmosphere exchange of ammonia: Fundamental importance of temperature as revealed by a comparison of high and low latitudes , 2008 .

[37]  Ole Hertel,et al.  Comparison of air quality in streets of Copenhagen and Milan, in view of the climatological conditions , 1996 .

[38]  Mark A. Sutton,et al.  Coupling soil-plant-atmosphere exchange of ammonia with ecosystem functioning in grasslands , 2002 .

[39]  P. Shepson,et al.  Processing of atmospheric nitrogen by clouds above a forest environment , 2007 .

[40]  Franz X. Meixner,et al.  Dry and wet deposition of inorganic nitrogen compounds to a tropical pasture site ( Rondônia , Brazil ) , 2005 .

[41]  M. Legrand,et al.  Seasonally resolved Alpine and Greenland ice core records of anthropogenic HCl emissions over the 20th century , 2002 .

[42]  M. Lawrence,et al.  The impact of ice uptake of nitric acid on atmospheric chemistry , 2005 .

[43]  Helen ApSimon,et al.  Modelling studies of the atmospheric release and transport of ammonia in anticyclonic episodes , 1994 .

[44]  P. Adams,et al.  Temporally resolved ammonia emission inventories: Current estimates, evaluation tools, and measurement needs , 2006 .

[45]  M. Gallagher,et al.  Particle deposition to forests—Summary of results and application , 1997 .

[46]  David S. Lee,et al.  Exchange of ammonia at the sea surface—a preliminary study , 1998 .

[47]  O. Hertel,et al.  Ammonia Emissions in Europe , 2013 .

[48]  E. A. Garwood,et al.  Ammonia emission from grassland and livestock production systems in the UK. , 1987, Environmental pollution.

[49]  D. H. Stedman,et al.  Direct measurements of ozone and nitrogen dioxide photolysis rates in the troposphere , 1980 .

[50]  Mark A. Sutton,et al.  A model of ammonia/ammonium conversion and deposition in a hill cap cloud , 1995 .

[51]  B. Vogel,et al.  Relative importance of organic coatings for the heterogeneous hydrolysis of N2O5 during summer in Europe , 2009 .

[52]  F. Dentener,et al.  Ammonia in the environment: from ancient times to the present. , 2008, Environmental pollution.

[53]  R. Dennis,et al.  Ammonia Emissions in the US: Assessing the Role of Bi-directional Ammonia Transport Using the Community Multi-scale Air Quality (CMAQ) Model , 2014 .

[54]  D. Golden,et al.  Heterogeneous Atmospheric Reactions: Sulfuric Acid Aerosols as Tropospheric Sinks , 1979, Science.

[55]  Fusuo Zhang,et al.  Corrigendum to Atmospheric organic nitrogen deposition in China [Atmos. Environ. 46C (2011) 195–204] , 2012 .

[56]  S. O. Petersen,et al.  Ammonia losses from urine and dung of grazing cattle: effect of N intake , 1998 .

[57]  B. Fisher.  Assessing recent ammonia inventories using a statistical long-range transport model , 1988 .

[58]  Thomas G. Ryan,et al.  Study of the SO2 oxidation in solution and its role in atmospheric chemistry , 1958 .

[59]  J. Schjoerring,et al.  Dynamics of ammonia exchange with cut grassland: synthesis of results and conclusions of the GRAMINAE Integrated Experiment , 2009 .

[60]  Stefan Reis,et al.  Assessment of the atmospheric nitrogen and sulphur inputs into the North Sea using a Lagrangian model , 2002 .

[61]  M. Sutton,et al.  Gas-particle interactions above a Dutch heathland: III. Modelling the influence of the NH 3 -HNO 3 -NH 4 NO 3 equilibrium on size-segregated particle fluxes , 2004 .

[62]  Timothy D. Jickells,et al.  Is the atmosphere really an important source of reactive nitrogen to coastal waters , 2005 .

[63]  J. Pires.  Ozone Weekend Effect Analysis in Three European Urban Areas , 2012 .

[64]  Fusuo Zhang,et al.  Atmospheric organic nitrogen deposition in China , 2012 .

[65]  J. Christensen,et al.  Spatial and temporal variations in ammonia emissions – a freely accessible model code for Europe , 2011 .

[66]  B. Loubet,et al.  Ammonia fluxes in relation to cutting and fertilization of an intensively managed grassland derived from an inter-comparison of gradient measurements , 2008 .

[67]  K. Treier,et al.  TRENDS IN PRECIPITATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS AT ESTONIAN MONITORING STATIONS 1994ā€“2005 , 2008 .

[68]  William H. McDowell,et al.  The origin, composition and rates of organic nitrogen deposition: A missing piece of the nitrogen cycle? , 2002 .

[69]  H. V. Andersen,et al.  Measurements of Ammonia and Ammonium by Denuder and Filter Pack , 1994 .

[70]  Roy M. Harrison,et al.  Estimation of the net air-sea flux of ammonia over the southern bight of the North Sea , 1994 .

[71]  S. Pryor.  NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE Nitric Acid-Sea Salt Reactions: Implications for Nitrogen Deposition to Water Surfaces , 2000 .

[72]  J. Schjoerring,et al.  Dynamics of ammonia exchange with cut grassland: strategy and implementation of the GRAMINAE Integrated Experiment , 2008 .

[73]  P. Ambus,et al.  Development of an accumulation‐based system for cost‐effective chamber measurements of inert trace gas fluxes , 2010 .

[74]  M. Riedo,et al.  Temporal variability in bioassays of the stomatal ammonia compensation point in relation to plant and soil nitrogen parameters in intensively managed grassland , 2009 .

[75]  Mark A. Sutton,et al.  Establishing the Link between Ammonia Emission Control and Measurements of Reduced Nitrogen Concentrations and Deposition , 2003, Environmental monitoring and assessment.

[76]  Gerhard Wotawa,et al.  A European inventory of soil nitric oxide emissions and the effect of these emissions on the photochemical formation of ozone , 1996 .

[77]  Carsten Ambelas Skjøth,et al.  Fluxes of ammonia in the coastal marine boundary layer , 2003 .

[78]  Joyce E. Penner,et al.  Global simulations of nitrate and ammonium aerosols and their radiative effects , 2012 .

[79]  D. Fowler,et al.  Practical considerations for addressing uncertainties in monitoring bulk deposition. , 2005, Environmental pollution.

[80]  D. Fowler,et al.  Linking Ammonia Emission Trends to Measured Concentrations and Deposition of Reduced Nitrogen at Different Scales , 2009 .

[81]  H. J. Delafield,et al.  The role of diffusiophoresis in the scavenging of radioactive particles from the atmosphere , 1963 .

[82]  A. Wexler,et al.  Atmospheric amines - Part I. A review , 2011 .

[83]  Mark A. Sutton,et al.  Investigation of the interaction between sources and sinks of atmospheric ammonia in an upland landscape using a simplified dispersion‐exchange model , 2001 .

[84]  S. Anthony,et al.  The impact of increasing the length of the cattle grazing season on emissions of ammonia and nitrous oxide and on nitrate leaching in England and Wales , 2005 .

[85]  R. Vautard,et al.  Atmospheric transport and deposition of reactive nitrogen in Europe , 2011 .

[86]  Matthias Ketzel,et al.  Operational Street Pollution Model (OSPM) – a review of performed application and validation studies, and future prospects , 2010 .

[87]  D. Simpson,et al.  Comparison of modelled and monitored deposition fluxes of sulphur and nitrogen to ICP-forest sites in Europe , 2005 .

[88]  M. Wesely,et al.  Air‐surface exchange of peroxyacetyl nitrate at a grassland site , 2004 .

[89]  Per Løfstrøm,et al.  Modelling Nitrogen Deposition on a Local Scale—A Review of the Current State of the Art , 2006 .

[90]  Jiangping Zhou,et al.  Sustainable commute in a car-dominant city: Factors affecting alternative mode choices among university students , 2012 .

[91]  J. Cape,et al.  Organic Nitrogen in Precipitation: Real Problem or Sampling Artefact? , 2001, TheScientificWorldJournal.

[92]  J. Cape,et al.  A dynamic chemical model of bi‐directional ammonia exchange between semi‐natural vegetation and the atmosphere , 1999 .

[93]  J. Cape,et al.  Organic nitrogen in the atmosphere — Where does it come from? A review of sources and methods , 2011 .

[94]  A. Stohl,et al.  Nitric acid phase partitioning and cycling in the New England coastal atmosphere , 2006 .

[95]  Keith A. Smith,et al.  Nitrogen processes in terrestrial ecosystems , 2011 .

[96]  G. Reinds,et al.  Quantifying impacts of nitrogen use in European agriculture on global warming potential , 2011 .

[97]  B. Loubet,et al.  The mass budget of atmospheric ammonia in woodland within 1 km of livestock buildings , 1998 .

[98]  Ruwim Berkowicz,et al.  OSPM - A Parameterised Street Pollution Model , 2000 .

[99]  S. Pryor,et al.  Experimentally derived estimates of nitric acid dry deposition velocity and viscous sub-layer resistance at a conifer forest , 2004 .

[100]  R. Barthelmie,et al.  A review of measurement and modelling results of particle atmosphere–surface exchange , 2008 .

[101]  H. Paerl,et al.  ANTHROPOGENICALLY-DERIVED ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN DEPOSITION, MARINE EUTROPHICATION AND HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOM EXPANSION : IS THERE A LINK? , 1999 .

[102]  J. A. van Jaarsveld,et al.  Evaluation of ammonia emission abatement on the basis of measurements and model calculations , 1998 .

[103]  P. Dasgupta,et al.  Solubility of ammonia in liquid water and generation of trace levels of standard gaseous ammonia , 1986 .

[104]  D. Fowler,et al.  Ammonia emissions from non-agricultural sources in the UK , 2000 .

[105]  Peter H. McMurry,et al.  Study of the ammonia (gas)-sulfuric acid (aerosol) reaction rate , 1983 .

[106]  G. P. Wyers,et al.  Fluxes of ammonia over oilseed rape overview of the EXAMINE experiment , 2000 .

[107]  M. Sutton.  Long term record of ammonia and ammonium concentrations at K-puszta , 1998 .

[108]  R. C. Cohen,et al.  Application of thermal-dissociation laser induced fluorescence (TD-LIF) to measurement of HNO 3 , Σalkyl nitrates, Σperoxy nitrates, and NO 2 fluxes using eddy covariance , 2006 .

[109]  P. Mcmurry,et al.  Growth of monodisperse, submicron aerosol particles exposed to SO2, H2O2, and NH3 , 1995 .

[110]  Ole Hertel,et al.  Using measurements of air pollution in streets for evaluation of urban air quality — meterological analysis and model calculations , 1996 .

[111]  G. Streit,et al.  Atmospheric chemistry of aldehydes: enhanced peroxyacetyl nitrate formation from ethanol-fueled vehicular emissions. , 1988, Environmental science & technology.

[112]  M. Wendisch,et al.  Observations and modelling of the processing of aerosol by a hill cap cloud , 1997 .

[113]  R. Harrison,et al.  Analysis of the air pollution climate at a background site in the Po valley. , 2012, Journal of environmental monitoring : JEM.

[114]  C. Peters-Lidard,et al.  A new model of bi-directional ammonia exchange between the atmosphere and biosphere: Ammonia stomatal compensation point , 2009 .

[115]  M. Jenkin,et al.  Analysis of the relationship between ambient levels of O3, NO2 and NO as a function of NOx in the UK , 2001 .

[116]  N. Mahowald,et al.  Atmospheric fluxes of organic N and P to the global ocean , 2012 .

[117]  P. Schröder,et al.  Absorption of atmospheric NO2 by spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.) trees , 1991 .

[118]  A. Arneth,et al.  Terrestrial biogeochemical feedbacks in the climate system , 2010 .

[119]  G. Leeuw,et al.  Atmospheric input of nitrogen into the North Sea: ANICE project overview , 2001 .

[120]  Gerard J. Kunz,et al.  Deposition of nitrogen into the North Sea , 2003 .

[121]  Jan Willem Erisman,et al.  Effects of agriculture upon the air quality and climate: research, policy, and regulations. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[122]  D. Fowler,et al.  Field measurements of wet deposition in an extended region of complex topography , 1990 .

[123]  S. Wanless,et al.  Ammonia emissions from seabird colonies , 2007 .

[124]  P. Crutzen,et al.  Tropospheric Halogen Chemistry , 2003 .

[125]  Cinzia Perrino,et al.  Gaseous ammonia in the urban area of Rome, Italy and its relationship with traffic emissions , 2002 .

[126]  R. Cohen,et al.  Observations of the effects of temperature on atmospheric HNO 3 , ΣANs, ΣPNs, and NO x : evidence for a temperature-dependent HO x source , 2007 .

[127]  P. Crutzen,et al.  A three-dimensional model of the global ammonia cycle , 1994 .

[128]  D. Baldocchi,et al.  Inputs of trace gases, particles and cloud droplets to terrestrial surfaces. , 1991 .

[129]  Jan Willem Erisman,et al.  Field intercomparison of precipitation measurements performed within the framework of the Pan European Intensive Monitoring Program of EU/ICP Forest. , 2003, Environmental pollution.

[130]  J. Erisman,et al.  Atmospheric deposition in relation to acidification and eutrophication , 1995 .

[131]  John H. Seinfeld,et al.  Secondary aerosol formation from atmospheric reactions of aliphatic amines , 2007 .

[132]  M. Pihlatie,et al.  Factors controlling regional differences in forest soil emission of nitrogen oxides (NO and N2O) , 2006 .

[133]  A. Goldstein,et al.  Eddy covariance fluxes of acyl peroxy nitrates (PAN, PPN and MPAN) above a Ponderosa pine forest , 2008 .

[134]  J. Pleim,et al.  Development and Evaluation of an Ammonia Bi-Directional Flux Model for Air Quality Models , 2011 .

[135]  M. A. Sutton,et al.  The Control of SO2 Dry Deposition on to Natural Surfaces by NH3 and its Effects on Regional Deposition , 2001 .

[136]  W. Hao,et al.  Emissions from forest fires near Mexico City , 2007 .

[137]  James S. Dyer,et al.  Too Much of a Good Thing? , 1999, Oper. Res..

[138]  G. Farquhar,et al.  On the Gaseous Exchange of Ammonia between Leaves and the Environment: Determination of the Ammonia Compensation Point. , 1980, Plant physiology.

[139]  Improved modelling of atmospheric ammonia over Denmark using the coupled modelling system DAMOS , 2012 .

[140]  T. Petäjä,et al.  Laboratory study on new particle formation from the reaction OH + SO 2 : influence of experimental conditions, H 2 O vapour, NH 3 and the amine tert-butylamine on the overall process , 2010 .

[141]  M. A. Sutton,et al.  Plant—atmosphere exchange of ammonia , 1995, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[142]  Wenche Aas,et al.  Introduction to the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) and observed atmospheric composition change during 1972–2009 , 2012 .

[143]  F. Anselmet,et al.  Aerosol dry deposition on vegetative canopies. Part I: Review of present knowledge , 2008 .

[144]  T. Petäjä,et al.  Experimental observation of strongly bound dimers of sulfuric acid: application to nucleation in the atmosphere. , 2011, Physical review letters.

[145]  R. Harrison,et al.  Governing processes for reactive nitrogen compounds in the atmosphere in relation to ecosystem climatic and human health impacts , 2012 .

[146]  R. Cary,et al.  Neutralization of sulfuric acid aerosol by ammonia , 1980 .

[147]  K. Barrett.  Oceanic ammonia emissions in Europe and their transboundary fluxes , 1998 .

[148]  Martin Gallagher,et al.  Measurements and parameterizations of small aerosol deposition velocities to grassland, arable crops, and forest: Influence of surface roughness length on deposition , 2002 .

[149]  R. Friedrich,et al.  Generation Of Atmospheric Emission Inventories In Europe With High Spatial And Temporal Resolution , 1999 .

[150]  M. Ketzel,et al.  A proper choice of route significantly reduces air pollution exposure--a study on bicycle and bus trips in urban streets. , 2008, The Science of the total environment.

[151]  Development of a low-cost system for measuring conditional time-averaged gradients of SO2 and NH3 , 2010, Environmental monitoring and assessment.

[152]  J. Webb,et al.  Gaseous emissions from outdoor concrete yards used by livestock , 2001 .

[153]  J. Erisman,et al.  Review of deposition monitoring methods , 1994 .

[154]  B. Finlayson‐Pitts,et al.  Atmospheric chemistry : fundamentals and experimental techniques , 1986 .

[155]  Liren Zhou,et al.  Parking management, financial subsidies to alternatives to drive alone and commute mode choices in Seattle , 2012 .

[156]  J. Rudolph,et al.  Dry deposition of peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN): Determination of its deposition velocity at night from measurements of the atmospheric PAN and 222Radon concentration gradient , 1996 .

[157]  Josette Garnier,et al.  Nitrogen as a threat to European water quality , 2011 .

[158]  Mark A. Sutton,et al.  Dry deposition of reactive nitrogen to European ecosystems: a comparison of inferential models across the NitroEurope network , 2010 .

[159]  A. Ravishankara,et al.  Variability in Nocturnal Nitrogen Oxide Processing and Its Role in Regional Air Quality , 2006, Science.

[160]  K. Clemitshaw,et al.  Ozone and other secondary photochemical pollutants: chemical processes governing their formation in the planetary boundary layer , 2000 .

[161]  M. H. Mikkelsen,et al.  Projection of the Ammonia Emission from Denmark from 2005 until 2025 , 2007 .

[162]  L. L. Christianson,et al.  A Computer Model for Predicting Ammonia Release Rates from Swine Manure Pits , 1994 .

[163]  Ing-Marie Gren,et al.  The European Nitrogen Assessment: Costs and benefits of nitrogen in the environment , 2011 .

[164]  J. Schjoerring,et al.  Sources and sinks of ammonia within an oilseed rape canopy. , 2000 .

[165]  M. Coyle,et al.  Advances in micrometeorological methods for the measurement and interpretation of gas and particle nitrogen fluxes , 2004, Plant and Soil.

[166]  Qi Zhang,et al.  Chemistry of fog waters in California's Central Valley—Part 3: concentrations and speciation of organic and inorganic nitrogen , 2001 .

[167]  Christian George,et al.  Photosensitized reduction of nitrogen dioxide on humic acid as a source of nitrous acid , 2006, Nature.

[168]  M. Heal,et al.  Gaseous and particulate water-soluble organic and inorganic nitrogen in rural air in southern Scotland , 2010 .

[169]  A. Feest.  Nitrogen Deposition and Natura 2000: Science and practice in determining environmental impacts , 2011 .

[170]  J. Neirynck,et al.  Atmospheric composition change: Ecosystems–Atmosphere interactions , 2009 .

[171]  K. Butterbach-Bahl,et al.  Quantifying the regional source strength of N-trace gases across agricultural and forest ecosystems with process based models , 2004, Plant and Soil.

[172]  M. Sanz,et al.  European scale application of atmospheric reactive nitrogen measurements in a low-cost approach to infer dry deposition fluxes. , 2009 .

[173]  S. Beevers,et al.  Development of an urban inventory for road transport emissions of NO2 and comparison with estimates derived from ambient measurements , 2005 .

[174]  Mark A. Sutton,et al.  Reactive nitrogen in atmospheric emission inventories , 2009 .

[175]  Hanna Vehkamäki,et al.  Amines are likely to enhance neutral and ion-induced sulfuric acid-water nucleation in the atmosphere more effectively than ammonia , 2008 .

[176]  D. Sigman,et al.  Molecular characterization of water soluble organic nitrogen in marine rainwater by ultra-high resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry , 2011 .

[177]  J. Barry McManus,et al.  Fluxes of nitrogen oxides over a temperate deciduous forest , 2004 .

[178]  M. Leuchner,et al.  Measurements of primary trace gases and NOY composition in Houston, Texas , 2010 .

[179]  Mark Lawrence,et al.  On the background photochemistry of tropospheric ozone , 1999 .

[180]  Jørgen E. Olesen,et al.  Modelling effects of wind speed and surface cover on ammonia volatilization from stored pig slurry , 1993 .

[181]  Mark A. Sutton,et al.  A two‐layer canopy compensation point model for describing bi‐directional biosphere‐atmosphere exchange of ammonia , 2001 .

[182]  J. Cape,et al.  Organic nitrogen deposition on land and coastal environments: a review of methods and data , 2003 .

[183]  J. Seinfeld,et al.  Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change , 1998 .

[184]  G. Leeuw,et al.  Flux divergence of nitric acid in the marine atmospheric surface layer , 2005 .

[185]  Michael D. Moran,et al.  Comparing emission inventories and model-ready emission datasets between Europe and North America for the AQMEII project , 2012 .

[186]  Margaret Bell,et al.  Risks of exceeding the hourly EU limit value for nitrogen dioxide resulting from increased road transport emissions of primary nitrogen dioxide , 2007 .

[187]  M. Andreae,et al.  Soil Nitrite as a Source of Atmospheric HONO and OH Radicals , 2011, Science.

[188]  Leiming Zhang,et al.  A size-segregated particle dry deposition scheme for an atmospheric aerosol module , 2001 .

[189]  T. Johnson,et al.  Atmospheric Measurements of HONO by Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy , 2001 .

[190]  Nick Tyler,et al.  What determines commute time choices? A structural equation modelling approach , 2012 .

[191]  B. Huebert,et al.  Organic nitrogen in Hawaiian rain and aerosol , 2001 .

[192]  Per Ambus,et al.  Inventories of N2O and NO Emissions from European Forest Soils , 2005 .

[193]  O. Hertel,et al.  Chapter 1:Urban Air Pollution Climates throughout the World , 2009 .

[194]  D. Lipson,et al.  The unexpected versatility of plants: organic nitrogen use and availability in terrestrial ecosystems , 2001, Oecologia.

[195]  Leiming Zhang,et al.  Bi‐directional air‐surface exchange of atmospheric ammonia: A review of measurements and a development of a big‐leaf model for applications in regional‐scale air‐quality models , 2010 .

[196]  Mark A. Sutton,et al.  The exchange of atmospheric ammonia with vegetated surfaces. II: Fertilized vegetation , 1993 .

[197]  M. Riedo,et al.  Biosphere-atmosphere interactions of ammonia with grasslands: Experimental strategy and results from a new European initiative , 2004, Plant and Soil.

[198]  G. Reinds,et al.  Comparison of land nitrogen budgets for European agriculture by various modeling approaches. , 2011, Environmental pollution.

[199]  Mark A. Sutton,et al.  Regional estimation of pollutant gas dry deposition in the UK: model description, sensitivity analyses and outputs , 2000 .

[200]  T. Steenhuis,et al.  Nitrogen losses from manure storages , 1982 .

[201]  R. Gordon,et al.  Simulated management effects on ammonia emissions from field applied manure. , 2009, Journal of environmental management.

[202]  E. Cooter,et al.  Linking agricultural crop management and air quality models for regional to national-scale nitrogen assessments , 2012 .

[203]  Srinath Krishnan,et al.  Modeling agricultural air quality: Current status, major challenges, and outlook , 2008 .

[204]  E. Cowling,et al.  The Nitrogen Cascade , 2003 .

[205]  Mark A. Sutton,et al.  The influence of model grid resolution on estimation of national scale nitrogen deposition and exceedance of critical loads , 2011 .

[206]  Robert J. Charlson,et al.  Simultaneous observations of ammonia in the atmosphere and ocean , 1988, Nature.

[207]  R. Jaenicke,et al.  The processing of water vapor and aerosols by atmospheric clouds, a global estimate , 1995 .

[208]  G. P. Wyers,et al.  Gas-particle interactions above a Dutch heathland: II. Concentrations and surface exchange fluxes of atmospheric particles , 2004 .

[209]  W. J. Bealey,et al.  A simple model for screening the local impacts of atmospheric ammonia. , 2009, The Science of the total environment.

[210]  D. Ceburnis,et al.  Lessons learnt from the first EMEP intensive measurement periods , 2012 .

[211]  J. Burrows,et al.  The nitrate radical: Physics, chemistry, and the atmosphere , 1991 .

[212]  M. Sutton,et al.  Modelling the dynamic chemical interactions of atmospheric ammonia with leaf surface wetness in a managed grassland canopy , 2009 .

[213]  R. Qualls,et al.  Biodegradability of Dissolved Organic Matter in Forest Throughfall, Soil Solution, and Stream Water , 1992 .

[214]  J. Cornelissen,et al.  Amino acid uptake among wide-ranging moss species may contribute to their strong position in higher-latitude ecosystems , 2008, Plant and Soil.

[215]  M. Viana,et al.  Urban NH3 levels and sources in a Mediterranean environment , 2012 .

[216]  S. Larsen,et al.  MEAD: an interdisciplinary study of the marine effects of atmospheric deposition in the Kattegat. , 2006, Environmental pollution.

[217]  H. Fagerli,et al.  Atmospheric deposition of nitrogen to the Baltic Sea in the period 1995–2006 , 2011 .

[218]  A. Alebić-Juretić.  Airborne ammonia and ammonium within the Northern Adriatic area, Croatia. , 2008, Environmental pollution.

[219]  W. Winiwarter,et al.  Nitrogen as a threat to the European greenhouse balance , 2011 .

[220]  Mark A. Sutton,et al.  Development of resistance models to describe measurements of bi-directional ammonia surface-atmosphere exchange , 1998 .

[221]  A. Indarto.  Heterogeneous reactions of HONO formation from NO2 and HNO3: a review , 2012, Research on Chemical Intermediates.

[222]  Fei Chen,et al.  Evaluation and improvements of two community models in simulating dry deposition velocities for peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) over a coniferous forest , 2012 .

[223]  J. Hartung,et al.  Temperature and Moisture Conditions in Livestock Buildings in Northern Europe , 1998 .

[224]  R. Harley,et al.  Trends in on-road vehicle emissions of ammonia , 2009 .

[225]  Roy M. Harrison,et al.  Tropospheric cycle of nitrous acid , 1996 .

[226]  Mark A. Sutton,et al.  Gas-particle interactions above a Dutch heathland: I. Surface exchange fluxes of NH 3 , SO 2 , HNO 3 and HCl , 2004 .

[227]  C. Junge,et al.  Study of the SO 2 oxidation in solution and its role in atmospheric chemistry , 1959 .

[228]  J. Cape,et al.  The reaction of nitrogen dioxide at low concentrations with natural waters , 1993 .

[229]  Reinhard Niessner,et al.  Laboratory studies of the influence of thin organic films on the neutralization reaction of H2SO4 aerosol with ammonia , 1992 .

[230]  J. Freney,et al.  A closed ammonia cycle within a plant canopy , 1976 .

[231]  Eiko Nemitz,et al.  Eddy covariance fluxes of peroxyacetyl nitrates (PANs) and NOy to a coniferous forest , 2006 .

[232]  Eric A. Davidson,et al.  A global inventory of nitric oxide emissions from soils , 2004, Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems.

[233]  C. Geron,et al.  Organic nitrogen in PM 2.5 aerosol at a forest site in the Southeast US , 2009 .

[234]  Ole Hertel,et al.  Effects of reduction of NOx on the NO2 levels in urban streets , 1996 .

[235]  John H. Seinfeld,et al.  Formation and cycling of aerosols in the global troposphere , 2000 .

[236]  Benoit Gabrielle,et al.  Carbon, nitrogen and Greenhouse gases budgets over a four years crop rotation in northern France , 2011, Plant and Soil.

[237]  F. Palmgren,et al.  Urban Air Pollution - European Aspects , 1999 .

[238]  J. Galloway,et al.  Organic nitrogen in precipitation over Eastern North America , 2002 .

[239]  D. Carslaw.  Evidence of an increasing NO2/NOX emissions ratio from road traffic emissions , 2005 .

[240]  S. Wanless,et al.  The global distribution of ammonia emissions from seabird colonies , 2012 .

[241]  A. Tuzet,et al.  Model of stomatal ammonia compensation point (STAMP) in relation to the plant nitrogen and carbon metabolisms and environmental conditions , 2010 .

[242]  M. Gauß,et al.  The EMEP MSC-W chemical transport model -- technical description , 2012 .

[243]  A. J. Janssen,et al.  A long-range transport model for ammonia and ammonium for Europe , 1987 .

[244]  Bertrand Bessagnet,et al.  Impact of realistic hourly emissions profiles on air pollutants concentrations modelled with CHIMERE , 2012 .

[245]  Mark A. Sutton,et al.  Integrating nitrogen fluxes at the European scale , 2011 .

[246]  J. Schjoerring,et al.  Seasonal variation in nitrogen pools and 15 N/ 13 C natural abundances in different tissues of grassland plants , 2011 .

[247]  P. Matson,et al.  NOx EMISSIONS FROM SOIL: Implications for Air Quality Modeling in Agricultural Regions , 1996 .

[248]  J. Seinfeld,et al.  Thermodynamic prediction of the water activity, NH4NO3 dissociation constant, density and refractive index for the NH4NO3-(NH4)2SO4-H2O system at 25°C , 1982 .

[249]  P. Cellier,et al.  Flux-gradient relationships above tall plant canopies , 1992 .

[250]  A. Carrarac,et al.  Driving forces for ammonia fluxes over mixed forest subjected to high deposition loads , 2005 .

[251]  J. F. Clarke,et al.  A multilayer model for inferring dry deposition using standard meteorological measurements , 1998 .

[252]  J. Notholt,et al.  Formation of HNO2 on aerosol surfaces during foggy periods in the presence of NO and NO2 , 1991 .

[253]  D. Lamb,et al.  The national atmospheric deposition program: an overview. , 2000 .

[254]  Bertrand Bessagnet,et al.  Atmospheric composition forecasting in Europe , 2010 .

[255]  J. Gaffney,et al.  Measurements of peroxyacetyl nitrate at a remote site in the southwestern United States: tropospheric implications , 1993 .

[256]  J. Galloway,et al.  Reactive nitrogen in the environment and its effect on climate change , 2011 .

[257]  Carsten Ambelas Skjøth,et al.  A dynamical ammonia emission parameterization for use in air pollution models , 2005 .

[258]  M. Schaap,et al.  Modeling the distribution of ammonia across Europe including bi-directional surface–atmosphere exchange , 2012 .

[259]  Leonidas Ntziachristos,et al.  Evolution of NO x emissions in Europe with focus on road transport control measures , 2008 .

[260]  D. Carruthers,et al.  A model of the feeder–seeder mechanism of orographic rain including stratification and wind‐drift effects , 1983 .

[261]  J. Monteith,et al.  Principles of Environmental Physics , 2014 .

[262]  B. Loubet,et al.  An inverse model to estimate ammonia emissions from fields , 2010 .

[263]  T. Jickells,et al.  Atmospheric inputs of dissolved organic nitrogen to the oceans , 1995, Nature.

[264]  M. Sutton,et al.  The European Nitrogen Assessment: Sources, Effects and Policy Perspectives , 2011 .

[265]  S. Larsen,et al.  Upward fluxes of particles over forests: when, where, why? , 2008 .

[266]  D. Simpson,et al.  A comparison of two different approaches for mapping potential ozone damage to vegetation. A model study. , 2007, Environmental pollution.

[267]  B. Loubet,et al.  Are ammonia emissions from field-applied slurry substantially over-estimated in European emission inventories? , 2011 .

[268]  Per Ambus,et al.  Biosphere-atmosphere exchange of reactive nitrogen and greenhouse gases at the NitroEurope core flux measurement sites: Measurement strategy and first data sets , 2009 .

[269]  John H. Seinfeld,et al.  A note on the equilibrium relationship between ammonia and nitric acid and particulate ammonium nitrate , 1979 .

[270]  Niamh Murtagh,et al.  Multiple identities and travel mode choice for regular journeys , 2012 .

[271]  Hideyuki Shimizu,et al.  Major activities of acid deposition monitoring network in East Asia (EANET) and related studies , 2005 .

[272]  Viney P. Aneja,et al.  Ammonia flux and dry deposition velocity from near-surface concentration gradient measurements over a grass surface in North Carolina , 2004 .

[273]  J. Hubbe,et al.  Aircraft measurements of nitrogen dioxide and peroxyacyl nitrates using luminol chemiluminescence with fast capillary gas chromatography , 1999 .

[274]  R. Harrison,et al.  Nitrogen processes in the atmosphere , 2011 .

[275]  M. Sutton,et al.  Long-term record (1981-2005) of ammonia and ammonium concentrations at K-Puszta Hungary and the effect of sulphur dioxide emission change on measured and modelled concentrations , 2009 .

[276]  C. Wetterer.  RR lyrae variable stars in the CCD/Transit instrument survey , 1995 .

[277]  Carsten Ambelas Skjøth,et al.  An integrated model study for Europe and North America using the Danish Eulerian Hemispheric Model with focus on intercontinental transport of air pollution , 2012 .

[278]  B. Hicks,et al.  A preliminary multiple resistance routine for deriving dry deposition velocities from measured quantities , 1987 .

[279]  Martin Ferm,et al.  Ammonia and nitrous oxide emissions from grass and alfalfa mulches , 1998, Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems.

[280]  A. Bouwman,et al.  A global high‐resolution emission inventory for ammonia , 1997 .

[281]  R. Massad,et al.  Review and parameterisation of bi-directional ammonia exchange between vegetation and the atmosphere , 2010 .

[282]  E. Davidson,et al.  Climate change impacts of US reactive nitrogen , 2012, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[283]  M. Sutton,et al.  Atmospheric ammonia : detecting emission changes and environmental impacts : results of an expert workshop under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution , 2009 .

[284]  Mark A. Sutton,et al.  Stomatal compensation points for ammonia in oilseed rape plants under field conditions , 2000 .

[285]  R. F. Hampson,et al.  Reaction Rate and Photochemical Data for Atmospheric Chemistry - 1977. , 1978 .

[286]  B. Loubet,et al.  Seasonal variability of apoplastic NH4+ and pH in an intensively managed grassland , 2004, Plant and Soil.

[287]  Christopher Lehmann,et al.  Stability of organic nitrogen in NADP wet deposition samples , 2012 .

[288]  Carsten Ambelas Skjøth,et al.  Implementing a dynamical ammonia emission parameterization in the large‐scale air pollution model ACDEP , 2004 .

[289]  Per Løfstrøm,et al.  Validation of model calculation of ammonia deposition in the neighbourhood of a poultry farm using measured NH3 concentrations and N deposition , 2009 .

[290]  H. Mckay.  The atmospheric oxidation of sulphur dioxide in water droplets in presence of ammonia , 1971 .

[291]  M. Abdalla,et al.  Effects of climate and management intensity on nitrous oxide emissions in grassland systems across Europe , 2007 .

[292]  C. N. Hewitt,et al.  Inventorying emissions from nature in Europe , 1999 .

[293]  R. Dennis,et al.  Evaluation of a regional air-quality model with bidirectional NH 3 exchange coupled to an agroecosystem model , 2012 .

[294]  M. Andreae,et al.  Emission of trace gases and aerosols from biomass burning , 2001 .

[295]  D. Ogilvie,et al.  Healthy travel and the socio-economic structure of car commuting in Cambridge, UK: A mixed-methods analysis , 2012, Social science & medicine.

[296]  T. Jickells,et al.  The European Nitrogen Assessment: Sources, Effects and Policy Perspectives , 2011 .

[297]  Keith A. Smith,et al.  Nitric oxide emissions from agricultural soils in temperate and tropical climates: sources, controls and mitigation options , 2004, Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems.

[298]  Ernie Weijers,et al.  Illustrating the benefit of using hourly monitoring data on secondary inorganic aerosol and its precursors for model evaluation , 2010 .