REVIEW ARTICLE: Spectroscopy of the solid-state analogues of the hydrogen atom: donors and acceptors in semiconductors

Under suitable circumstances imperfections in semiconductors can bind electrons (holes) with a binding energy small compared to the intrinsic energy gap of the host; the wavefunctions characterising the energy levels of the imperfection are extended over many lattice spacings. This review discusses the electronic energy levels of chemical impurities in the classic group IV elemental and the III-V and II-VI compound semiconductors. The large dielectric constant of the host, the anisotropic effective mass tensor and/or the small effective mass of the charge carrier are the factors which play a significant role in the description of the electronic energy levels; they can be viewed as scaled-down versions of the hydrogen atom with bound states having binding energies orders of magnitude smaller than those of the hydrogen atom. The authors present the experimental results on the spectroscopy of donors and acceptors in semiconductors together with the theory necessary for their interpretation. They discuss the experimental results and the theory of the bound states of impurities in the context of the symmetry and the effective-mass parameters of the band extrema with which they are associated. Effects of external perturbation-piezo- and magneto-spectroscopy-are presented both from experimental and theoretical points of view. The review concludes with the experimental observations on the linewidths of the excitation spectra of donors and acceptors in semiconductors and an analysis of the causes underlying them.