Expectations and the Educational Environment1

The concept of an "expectancy effect," as a determinant of educational outcomes, has been receiving much attention during the past several years. Beginning with the popularization of the Rosenthal and Jacobson studies (1968a, 1968b), educators have been engaged in a flurry of activity to ensure that pupils will not be deprived of learning opportunities, due to teachers' biases. Countless teachers, administrators, and school board members have discussed the problem, as have concerned parents. And for those who consider standardized test results as worse than useless, the definitive piece of evidence has been found. Teachers must not know the IQ scores of their pupils. In the research community, there has also been a flurry of activity. The Rosenthal and Jacobson studies have been attacked as being methodologically incorrect, overinterpreted, and not adequate in terms of identifying the teacher behaviors which produce higher or lower achievement results in pupils perceived as bright or dull, respectively (e.g. Snow, 1969; Elashoff & Snow, 1971; Thomdike, 1968). In addition, numerous researchers have attempted to replicate the major finding, that teacher's knowledge of pupil ability affects his treatment of the pupil, and ultimately, the pupil's further achievement. Among them are published studies by Jose and Cody (1971), Fleming and Anttonen (1971), Claiborn (1969), and Rubovits and Maehr (1971). Very few have succeeded in finding support for the "expectation hypothesis." The attempts at replication are well-summarized by the concluding remarks of one such study. "No significant differences were found in IQ, achievement, students' grades or behavior, and no differences were observed in teacher behavior." In addition, "The