Study of the attentive behavior of novice and expert map users using eye tracking

The aim of this paper is to gain better understanding of the way map users read and interpret the visual stimuli presented to them and how this can be influenced. In particular, the difference between expert and novice map users is considered. In a user study, the participants studied four screen maps which had been manipulated to introduce deviations. The eye movements of 24 expert and novice participants were tracked, recorded, and analyzed (both visually and statistically) based on a grid of Areas of Interest. These visual analyses are essential for studying the spatial dimension of maps to identify problems in design. In this research, we used visualization of eye movement metrics (fixation count and duration) in a 2D and 3D grid and a statistical comparison of the grid cells. The results show that the users’ eye movements clearly reflect the main elements on the map. The users’ attentive behavior is influenced by deviating colors, as their attention is drawn to it. This could also influence the users’ interpretation process. Both user groups encountered difficulties when trying to interpret and store map objects that were mirrored. Insights into how different types of map users read and interpret map content are essential in this fast-evolving era of digital cartographic products.

[1]  William Cartwright.  Neocartography: Opportunities, Issues and Prospects , 2012 .

[2]  A. Baddeley.  Essentials of Human Memory , 1999 .

[3]  Paul M. Fitts,et al.  Eye movements of aircraft pilots during instrument-landing approaches. , 1950 .

[4]  A. Koláčcný.  Cartographic Information – A Fundamental Concept And Term In Modern Cartography , 1977 .

[5]  Joseph H. Goldberg,et al.  Eye tracking in web search tasks: design implications , 2002, ETRA.

[6]  G. A. Miller.  THE PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW THE MAGICAL NUMBER SEVEN, PLUS OR MINUS TWO: SOME LIMITS ON OUR CAPACITY FOR PROCESSING INFORMATION 1 , 1956 .

[7]  Frank Witlox,et al.  Investigating the Effectiveness of an Efficient Label Placement Method Using Eye Movement Data , 2012 .

[8]  K. Rayner.  Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. , 1998, Psychological bulletin.

[9]  Andrew T. Duchowski,et al.  Eye Tracking Methodology: Theory and Practice , 2003, Springer London.

[10]  Michael P. Peterson.  Maps and the Internet: An Introduction , 2003 .

[11]  Carmen Martín Gómez,et al.  Essentials of Human Memory , 2016 .

[12]  Daniel R. Montello,et al.  Cognitive Map-Design Research in the Twentieth Century: Theoretical and Empirical Approaches , 2002 .

[13]  Mark Harrower,et al.  The Cognitive Limits of Animated Maps , 2007, Cartogr. Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Geovisualization.

[14]  Sara Irina Fabrikant,et al.  Introduction: Cognitive Issues in Geographic Information Visualization , 2009, Cartogr. Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Geovisualization.

[15]  Veerle Fack,et al.  Listen to the Map User: Cognition, Memory, and Expertise , 2015 .

[16]  Alan M. MacEachren,et al.  How Maps Work - Representation, Visualization, and Design , 1995 .

[17]  Richard C. Atkinson,et al.  Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes , 1968, Psychology of Learning and Motivation.

[18]  Linden J. Ball,et al.  Eye Tracking in Human-Computer Interaction and Usability Research : Current Status and Future Prospects , 2004 .

[19]  Jeffrey Rubin,et al.  Handbook of Usability Testing: How to Plan, Design, and Conduct Effective Tests , 1994 .

[20]  Katherine McCoy,et al.  Information and Persuasion: Rivals or Partners? , 2000, Design Issues.

[21]  Mary Hegarty,et al.  Thinking about the weather: How display salience and knowledge affect performance in a graphic inference task. , 2010, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[22]  Rick L. Bunch,et al.  The Cognitive Load of Geographic Information , 2006 .

[23]  D. F. Fisher,et al.  Eye movements : cognition and visual perception , 1982 .

[24]  Michael W. Dobson,et al.  Eye Movement Parameters and Map Reading , 1977 .

[25]  Robert J. K. Jacob,et al.  Eye tracking in human-computer interaction and usability research : Ready to deliver the promises , 2002 .

[26]  Philippe De Maeyer,et al.  Analysing the spatial dimension of eye movement data using a visual analytic approach , 2012, Expert Syst. Appl..

[27]  Jakob Nielsen,et al.  Usability engineering , 1997, The Computer Science and Engineering Handbook.

[28]  Judy M. Olson.  A Coordinated Approach to Map Communication Improvement , 1976 .

[29]  D. R. Montello.  Cognitive Research in GIScience: Recent Achievements and Future Prospects , 2009 .

[30]  Kenneth Holmqvist,et al.  Eye tracking: a comprehensive guide to methods and measures , 2011 .

[31]  Theodore Steinke.  Eye Movement Studies In Cartography And Related Fields , 1987 .

[32]  Arzu Çöltekin,et al.  Exploring the efficiency of users' visual analytics strategies based on sequence analysis of eye movement recordings , 2010, Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci..

[33]  Rodney V. Gerber.  Competence and Performance in Cartographic Language , 1981 .

[34]  P. Cavanagh,et al.  The Capacity of Visual Short-Term Memory is Set Both by Visual Information Load and by Number of Objects , 2004, Psychological science.

[35]  Terry C. Lansdown,et al.  The mind's eye: cognitive and applied aspects of eye movement research , 2005 .

[36]  Linden J. Ball,et al.  Eye tracking in HCI and usability research. , 2006 .

[37]  Henry W. Castner,et al.  Eye-Movement Parameters and Perceived Map Complexity—II , 1984 .

[38]  Lars Brodersen,et al.  Applying eye-movement tracking for the study of map perception and map design , 2001 .

[39]  Bin Jiang,et al.  Cognitive and Usability Issues in Geovisualization , 2001 .

[40]  Debora Shaw,et al.  Handbook of usability testing: How to plan, design, and conduct effective tests , 1996 .

[41]  Frank Witlox,et al.  Interpreting maps through the eyes of expert and novice users , 2012, Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci..

[42]  N. Cowan.  The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity , 2001, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[43]  Arzu Çöltekin,et al.  Evaluating the Effectiveness of Interactive Map Interface Designs: A Case Study Integrating Usability Metrics with Eye-Movement Analysis , 2009 .

[44]  Dana Chisnell,et al.  Handbook of Usability Testing , 2009 .

[45]  Gennady Andrienko,et al.  Novel Method to Measure Inference Affordance in Static Small-Multiple Map Displays Representing Dynamic Processes , 2008 .

[46]  R. Brunet.  Bertin (Jacques). Sémiologie graphique. Paris, Mouton et Gauthier- Villars, 1967 , 1968 .

[47]  Jakob Nielsen,et al.  Chapter 4 – The Usability Engineering Lifecycle , 1993 .