The role of infections in autoimmune disease

Autoimmunity occurs when the immune system recognizes and attacks host tissue. In addition to genetic factors, environmental triggers (in particular viruses, bacteria and other infectious pathogens) are thought to play a major role in the development of autoimmune diseases. In this review, we (i) describe the ways in which an infectious agent can initiate or exacerbate autoimmunity; (ii) discuss the evidence linking certain infectious agents to autoimmune diseases in humans; and (iii) describe the animal models used to study the link between infection and autoimmunity.

[1]  B. McManus,et al.  Direct myocardial injury by enterovirus: a central role in the evolution of murine myocarditis. , 1993, Clinical immunology and immunopathology.

[2]  M. Knip,et al.  A prospective study of the role of coxsackie B and other enterovirus infections in the pathogenesis of IDDM. Childhood Diabetes in Finland (DiMe) Study Group. , 1995 .

[3]  A. Moraska,et al.  Alterations in major histocompatibility complex association of myocarditis induced by coxsackievirus B3 mutants selected with monoclonal antibodies to group A streptococci. , 1994, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[4]  H. Eisen,et al.  Fl-160. A surface antigen of Trypanosoma cruzi that mimics mammalian nervous tissue , 1989, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[5]  K. Yaddanapudi,et al.  A Murine Model for Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Group A β-Hemolytic Streptococcal Infection , 2004, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[6]  W. Kuziel,et al.  Reduced Macrophage Infiltration and Demyelination in Mice Lacking the Chemokine Receptor CCR5 Following Infection with a Neurotropic Coronavirus , 2001, Virology.

[7]  B. Rouse,et al.  Characterization of herpes simplex virus type-1 infection and herpetic stromal keratitis development in IFN-gamma knockout mice. , 1995, Journal of immunology.

[8]  L. Guilherme,et al.  Autoimmunity in Chagas' disease. Identification of cardiac myosin-B13 Trypanosoma cruzi protein crossreactive T cell clones in heart lesions of a chronic Chagas' cardiomyopathy patient. , 1996, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[9]  D. Engman,et al.  A Cardiac Myosin-Specific Autoimmune Response Is Induced by Immunization with Trypanosoma cruzi Proteins , 2004, Infection and Immunity.

[10]  A. Steere,et al.  The clinical evolution of Lyme arthritis. , 1987, Annals of internal medicine.

[11]  J. Rosenbaum,et al.  Genetics of uveitis. , 2003, Ophthalmology clinics of North America.

[12]  J. Kurtzke,et al.  Multiple sclerosis in the faroe islands: I. Clinical and epidemiological features , 1979, Annals of neurology.

[13]  M. Hirsch,et al.  Selective effects of anti-macrophage serum, silica and anti-lymphocyte serum on pathogenesis of herpes virus infection of young adult mice. , 1970, Journal of immunology.

[14]  P. Allen,et al.  Cardiac gene expression profiling provides evidence for cytokinopathy as a molecular mechanism in Chagas' disease cardiomyopathy. , 2005, The American journal of pathology.

[15]  L. Sigal.  Lyme disease: a review of aspects of its immunology and immunopathogenesis. , 1997, Annual review of immunology.

[16]  J. Harley,et al.  Human monoclonal antibodies reactive with antigens of the group A Streptococcus and human heart. , 1988, Journal of immunology.

[17]  H. Willison,et al.  Peripheral neuropathies and anti-glycolipid antibodies. , 2002, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[18]  A. Steere,et al.  Direct enumeration of Borrelia-reactive CD4 T cells ex vivo by using MHC class II tetramers. , 2000, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[19]  Vasilii A Lashkevich,et al.  Enterovirus uveitis , 2004, Reviews in medical virology.

[20]  J. Woodruff,et al.  Involvement of T lymphocytes in the pathogenesis of coxsackie virus B3 heart disease. , 1974, Journal of immunology.

[21]  T. Mack,et al.  Differential twin concordance for multiple sclerosis by latitude of birthplace , 2006, Annals of neurology.

[22]  H Cantor,et al.  Molecular mimicry by herpes simplex virus-type 1: autoimmune disease after viral infection. , 1998, Science.

[23]  Jean Côté,et al.  Lyme Disease , 1991, International journal of dermatology.

[24]  F. Kierszenbaum.  Autoimmunity in Chagas' disease. , 1986, The Journal of parasitology.

[25]  J. Craddock,et al.  Rheumatic-like Cardiac Lesions in Mice , 1966, Science.

[26]  D. Metzger,et al.  Cross-reactive rubella virus and glutamic acid decarboxylase (65 and 67) protein determinants recognised by T cells of patients with Type I diabetes mellitus , 2000, Diabetologia.

[27]  H. Link,et al.  Lyme Neuroborreliosis: Evidence for Persistent Up‐Regulation of Borrelia Burgdorferi‐Reactive Cells Secreting Interferon‐γ , 1995, Scandinavian journal of immunology.

[28]  H. Jun,et al.  Role of macrophages and macrophage-derived cytokines in the pathogenesis of Kilham rat virus-induced autoimmune diabetes in diabetes-resistant BioBreeding rats. , 1997, Journal of immunology.

[29]  L. Mazzone,et al.  Anti-brain antibodies in PANDAS versus uncomplicated streptococcal infection. , 2004, Pediatric neurology.

[30]  B. Curfman,et al.  Coxsackie Virus B4 Produces Transient Diabetes in Nonhuman Primates , 1986, Diabetes.

[31]  R. Ribeiro‐dos‐Santos,et al.  A heart‐specific CD4+ T‐cell line obtained from a chronic chagasic mouse induces carditis in heart‐immunized mice and rejection of normal heart transplants in the absence of Trypanosoma cruzi , 2001, Parasite immunology.

[32]  D. Engman,et al.  The significance of autoimmunity in the pathogenesis of Chagas heart disease. , 2003, Frontiers in bioscience : a journal and virtual library.

[33]  J. Lannes-Vieira.  Trypanosoma cruzi-elicited CD8+ T cell-mediated myocarditis: chemokine receptors and adhesion molecules as potential therapeutic targets to control chronic inflammation? , 2003, Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz.

[34]  C. Todd,et al.  Do lymphocytes from Chagasic patients respond to heart antigens? , 1983, Infection and immunity.

[35]  S. Yagihashi,et al.  Congenital rubella syndrome as a model for Type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus: increased prevalence of islet cell surface antibodies , 1984, Diabetologia.

[36]  J. Benach,et al.  Antibodies to myelin basic protein in Lyme disease. , 1988, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[37]  R. Barbano,et al.  Serum and cells from Theiler's virus-infected mice fail to injure myelinating cultures or to produce in vivo transfer of disease The pathogenesis of Theiler's virus-induced demyelination appears to differ from that of EAE , 1984, Journal of the Neurological Sciences.

[38]  Yingdong Zhao,et al.  Identification of candidate T-cell epitopes and molecular mimics in chronic Lyme disease , 1999, Nature Medicine.

[39]  S. Swedo,et al.  Post-streptococcal autoimmune disorders of the central nervous system. , 2003, Current opinion in neurology.

[40]  N. Tamaoki,et al.  In vivo significance of NK cell on resistance against virus (HSV-1) infections in mice. , 1984, Journal of immunology.

[41]  R. Sobel,et al.  B cells and antibodies in the pathogenesis of myelin injury in Semliki Forest Virus encephalomyelitis. , 2000, Cellular immunology.

[42]  M. Buchmeier,et al.  A Central Role for CD4+ T Cells and RANTES in Virus-Induced Central Nervous System Inflammation and Demyelination , 2000, Journal of Virology.

[43]  H. Weiner,et al.  T-cell recognition of an immuno-dominant myelin basic protein epitope in multiple sclerosis , 1990, Nature.

[44]  M. Soares,et al.  Immunopathology of cardiomyopathy in the experimental Chagas disease. , 1999, Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz.

[45]  S. Barthold,et al.  Cutting Edge: T Cell-Mediated Pathology in Murine Lyme Borreliosis1 , 2000, The Journal of Immunology.

[46]  J. Fleming,et al.  Sequential infection of glial cells by the murine hepatitis virus JHM strain (MHV-4) leads to a characteristic distribution of demyelination. , 1992, Laboratory investigation; a journal of technical methods and pathology.

[47]  A. Moran,et al.  Campylobacter jejuni from Patients with Guillain-Barré Syndrome Preferentially Expresses a GD1a-Like Epitope , 2002, Infection and Immunity.

[48]  S. Malawista.  Opinion:: Resolution of Lyme Arthritis, Acute or Prolonged: A New Look , 2000, Inflammation.

[49]  S. Kusunoki,et al.  Anti-Gal-C antibodies in GBS subsequent to mycoplasma infection: Evidence of molecular mimicry , 2001, Neurology.

[50]  S. Williams,et al.  Molecular mimicry in Lyme disease: monoclonal antibody H9724 to B. burgdorferi flagellin specifically detects chaperonin-HSP60. , 1993, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[51]  C. Cha,et al.  Human pancreatic islet cell specific 38 kilodalton autoantigen identified by cytomegalovirus-induced monoclonal islet cell autoantibody , 1990, Diabetologia.

[52]  J. Fazakerley,et al.  Replication of the A7(74) strain of Semliki Forest virus is restricted in neurons. , 1993, Virology.

[53]  Gregory F. Wu,et al.  Macrophage Infiltration, but Not Apoptosis, Is Correlated with Immune-Mediated Demyelination following Murine Infection with a Neurotropic Coronavirus , 1999, Journal of Virology.

[54]  J. Coura,et al.  [The evolution of chronic chagasic cardiopathy. I. The influence of parasitemia]. , 1992, Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical.

[55]  E. Holland,et al.  Classification of herpes simplex virus keratitis. , 1999, Cornea.

[56]  M. Ho,et al.  Human and murine antibodies cross-reactive with streptococcal M protein and myosin recognize the sequence GLN-LYS-SER-LYS-GLN in M protein. , 1989, Journal of immunology.

[57]  T. Hyypia,et al.  Mumps and Coxsackie B3 Virus Infection of Human Fetal Pancreatic Islet‐like Cell Clusters , 1992, Pancreas.

[58]  M. Herzum,et al.  Coxsackievirus B3 infection leads to cell death of cardiac myocytes. , 1994, Journal of molecular and cellular cardiology.

[59]  R. M. Wooten,et al.  Dual Role of Interleukin-10 in Murine Lyme Disease: Regulation of Arthritis Severity and Host Defense , 1999, Infection and Immunity.

[60]  M. Cunningham,et al.  Molecular analysis of polyreactive monoclonal antibodies from rheumatic carditis: human anti-N-acetylglucosamine/anti-myosin antibody V region genes. , 1998, Journal of immunology.

[61]  A. Oldstone.  Molecular Mimicry , 1989, Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology.

[62]  C. Mady,et al.  Chronic Chagas' disease cardiomyopathy patients display an increased IFN-gamma response to Trypanosoma cruzi infection. , 2001, Journal of autoimmunity.

[63]  R. Williams,et al.  Antibodies reacting with cytoplasm of subthalamic and caudate nuclei neurons in chorea and acute rheumatic fever , 1976, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[64]  A. Gruber,et al.  Autoimmunity in Chagas disease cardiopathy: biological relevance of a cardiac myosin-specific epitope crossreactive to an immunodominant Trypanosoma cruzi antigen. , 1995, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[65]  H. Singer,et al.  Antibodies against human putamen in children with Tourette syndrome , 1998, Neurology.

[66]  S. Miller,et al.  Characterization of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV)-specific delayed-type hypersensitivity responses in TMEV-induced demyelinating disease: correlation with clinical signs. , 1986, Journal of immunology.

[67]  J. Woodruff.  Viral myocarditis. A review. , 1980, The American journal of pathology.

[68]  G. Atkins,et al.  Avirulent Semliki Forest virus replication and pathology in the central nervous system is enhanced in IL-12-defective and reduced in IL-4-defective mice: a role for Th1 cells in the protective immunity , 2002, Journal of Neuroimmunology.

[69]  J. Strominger,et al.  Molecular mimicry in T cell-mediated autoimmunity: Viral peptides activate human T cell clones specific for myelin basic protein , 1995, Cell.

[70]  D. Hinton,et al.  Viral Induced Demyelination , 2001, Brain pathology.

[71]  S. Miller,et al.  Persistent infection with Theiler's virus leads to CNS autoimmunity via epitope spreading , 1997, Nature Medicine.

[72]  A. Steere,et al.  Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA by polymerase chain reaction in synovial fluid from patients with Lyme arthritis. , 1994, The New England journal of medicine.

[73]  B. McManus,et al.  Ubiquitin-Dependent Proteolysis of Cyclin D1 Is Associated with Coxsackievirus-Induced Cell Growth Arrest , 2003, Journal of Virology.

[74]  J. Fazakerley,et al.  Role of immune responses in protection and pathogenesis during Semliki Forest virus encephalitis. , 1996, The Journal of general virology.

[75]  T. Liesegang.  Classification of herpes simplex virus keratitis and anterior uveitis. , 1999, Cornea.

[76]  L. Donoso,et al.  Molecular mimicry between a uveitopathogenic site of S-antigen and viral peptides. Induction of experimental autoimmune uveitis in Lewis rats. , 1990, Journal of immunology.

[77]  P. E. Tam,et al.  Coxsackievirus B1-induced chronic inflammatory myopathy: differences in induction of autoantibodies to muscle and nuclear antigens by cloned myopathic and amyopathic viruses. , 2003, The Journal of laboratory and clinical medicine.

[78]  J. Whitton,et al.  The role of CD8+ T lymphocytes in coxsackievirus B3-induced myocarditis , 1995, Journal of virology.

[79]  A. Gruber,et al.  Trypanosoma cruzi: characterization of two recombinant antigens with potential application in the diagnosis of Chagas' disease. , 1993, Experimental parasitology.

[80]  Woodruff Jf.  Viral myocarditis. A review. , 1980 .

[81]  H. Wingstrand,et al.  Acute non-specific myocarditis in scarlet fever and acute haemolytic tonsillitis A clinical investigation of 3,069 cases of scarlet fever, 798 cases of acute tonsillitis, and 333 cases of haemolytic streptococcus carriers. , 1951, Cardiologia.

[82]  G. Wildner,et al.  Autoimmune uveitis induced by molecular mimicry of peptides from rotavirus, bovine casein and retinal S‐antigen , 2003, European journal of immunology.

[83]  M. Mori,et al.  Haemophilus influenzae infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome. , 2000, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[84]  C. Stratton,et al.  Chlamydia pneumoniae infection of the central nervous system in multiple sclerosis , 1999, Annals of neurology.

[85]  O. Kovácová.  [Congenital rubella]. , 1975, Ceskoslovenska pediatrie.

[86]  P. Lundberg,et al.  Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 DNA Is Immunostimulatory In Vitro and In Vivo , 2003, Journal of Virology.

[87]  A. Steere,et al.  Lack of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA in synovial samples from patients with antibiotic treatment-resistant Lyme arthritis. , 1999, Arthritis and rheumatism.

[88]  Gregory F. Wu,et al.  CD4 and CD8 T Cells Have Redundant But Not Identical Roles in Virus-Induced Demyelination , 2000 .

[89]  R J Albertini,et al.  T cells responsive to myelin basic protein in patients with multiple sclerosis. , 1990, Science.

[90]  B. Luft,et al.  Human T lymphocyte response to Borrelia burgdorferi infection: no correlation between human leukocyte function antigen type 1 peptide response and clinical status. , 2003, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[91]  M. Mabruk,et al.  Virulent and avirulent strains of Semliki Forest virus show similar cell tropism for the murine central nervous system but differ in the severity and rate of induction of cytolytic damage , 1993, Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology.

[92]  M. Menser,et al.  A fifty-year follow-up of congenital rubella , 1992, The Lancet.

[93]  B. Gebhardt,et al.  Persistent cytokine expression in trigeminal ganglion latently infected with herpes simplex virus type 1. , 1996, Journal of immunology.

[94]  K. Hirata,et al.  Acute motor axonal neuropathy after Mycoplasma infection , 2004, Neurology.

[95]  H. Friedman,et al.  Theiler's Virus Infection: a Model for Multiple Sclerosis , 2004, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[96]  A. Rothova,et al.  Humoral and cellular immune responsiveness to human S-antigen in uveitis. , 1987, Current eye research.

[97]  D. Bowers,et al.  Molecular mimicry, anti-coxsackievirus B3 neutralizing monoclonal antibodies, and myocarditis. , 1995, Journal of immunology.

[98]  J. Stengård,et al.  Concordance for Type 1 (insulin-dependent) and Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus in a population-based cohort of twins in Finland , 1992, Diabetologia.

[99]  Ji-Woon Yoon,et al.  ASSOCIATION OF CYTOMEGALOVIRUS INFECTION WITH AUTOIMMUNE TYPE 1 DIABETES , 1988, The Lancet.

[100]  M. Bronze,et al.  Epitopes of streptococcal M proteins that evoke antibodies that cross-react with human brain. , 1993, Journal of immunology.

[101]  A. Green,et al.  Concordance rates of insulin dependent diabetes mellitus: a population based study of young Danish twins , 1995, BMJ.

[102]  E. Fikrig,et al.  Borrelia burgdorferi-infected, interleukin-6-deficient mice have decreased Th2 responses and increased lyme arthritis. , 1998, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[103]  Multiple sclerosis in Iceland , 1982, Neurology.

[104]  N. Yuki,et al.  Miller Fisher syndrome and Haemophilus influenzae infection , 2001, Neurology.

[105]  S. Huber.  Autoimmunity in myocarditis: relevance of animal models. , 1997, Clinical immunology and immunopathology.

[106]  F. Granucci,et al.  Analysis of the relationship between viral infection and autoimmune disease. , 2001, Immunity.

[107]  S. Barthold,et al.  Central and peripheral nervous system infection, immunity, and inflammation in the NHP model of Lyme borreliosis. , 2001, Annals of neurology.

[108]  S. A. Wilson,et al.  Disorders of motility and muscle tone with special reference to the corpus striatum , 1925 .

[109]  E. Fikrig,et al.  Serologic response to the Borrelia burgdorferi flagellin demonstrates an epitope common to a neuroblastoma cell line. , 1993, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[110]  D. R. Gamble.  Relation of antecedent illness to development of diabetes in children. , 1980, British medical journal.

[111]  A. Kramer,et al.  Multiple cross‐reactive self‐ligands for Borrelia burgdorferi‐specific HLA‐DR4‐restricted T cells , 2000, European journal of immunology.

[112]  H. Lipton,et al.  Ultrastructural immunohistochemical localization of virus in acute and chronic demyelinating Theiler's virus infection. , 1982, The American journal of pathology.

[113]  S. Miller,et al.  Temporal Development of Autoreactive Th1 Responses and Endogenous Presentation of Self Myelin Epitopes by Central Nervous System-Resident APCs in Theiler’s Virus-Infected Mice1 , 2000, The Journal of Immunology.

[114]  T. Liesegang.  Epidemiology of ocular herpes simplex. Natural history in Rochester, Minn, 1950 through 1982. , 1989, Archives of ophthalmology.

[115]  M. Cunningham,et al.  Molecular analysis of cross-reactive anti-myosin/anti-streptococcal mouse monoclonal antibodies. , 2000, Molecular Immunology.

[116]  M. Dana,et al.  Immunity causing blindness: five different paths to herpes stromal keratitis. , 1997, Immunology today.

[117]  H. Eisen,et al.  Chemical characterization of epitopes common to Trypanosoma cruzi and mammalian nervous cells. , 1988, Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz.

[118]  A. Chaudhuri,et al.  Cytomegalovirus in autoimmunity: T cell crossreactivity to viral antigen and autoantigen glutamic acid decarboxylase , 2001, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[119]  R. Knobler,et al.  Virus persistence and recurring demyelination produced by a temperature-sensitive mutant of MHV-4 , 1982, Nature.

[120]  Jingwu Z. Zhang,et al.  Myelin basic protein-reactive T cells in multiple sclerosis: Pathologic relevance and therapeutic targeting , 2004, Cytotechnology.

[121]  S. Gea,et al.  Cruzipain, a major Trypanosoma cruzi antigen, conditions the host immune response in favor of parasite , 2002, European journal of immunology.

[122]  N. Latov,et al.  Antibodies against OspA epitopes of Borrelia burgdorferi cross-react with neural tissue , 2005, Journal of Neuroimmunology.

[123]  T. Komatsu,et al.  Myocardial changes after infection with Coxsackie virus B3 in nude mice. , 1978, British journal of experimental pathology.

[124]  S. Hill,et al.  The pathogenesis of postinfectious myocarditis. , 1996, Clinical immunology and immunopathology.

[125]  H. Hyöty,et al.  Mumps virus infects Beta cells in human fetal islet cell cultures upregulating the expression of HLA class I molecules , 2004, Diabetologia.

[126]  G. Friman,et al.  High frequency of coxsackie‐B‐virus‐specific IgM in children developing type I diabetes during a period of high diabetes morbidity , 1985, Journal of medical virology.

[127]  H. Lipton,et al.  High Numbers of Viral RNA Copies in the Central Nervous System of Mice during Persistent Infection with Theiler's Virus , 2001, Journal of Virology.

[128]  M. Knip,et al.  A Prospective Study of the Role of Coxsackie B and Other Enterovirus Infections in the Pathogenesis of IDDM , 1995, Diabetes.

[129]  C. Bernard,et al.  Immunopathological recognition of autoantigens in multiple sclerosis. , 1991, Acta neurologica.

[130]  G. McKhann,et al.  Serum antibodies to gangliosides in guillain‐barré syndrome , 1988, Annals of neurology.

[131]  R. Williams,et al.  Tissue distribution of lymphocytes in rheumatic heart valves as defined by monoclonal anti-T cell antibodies. , 1983, The American journal of medicine.

[132]  N. Bowles,et al.  DETECTION OF COXSACKIE-B-VIRUS-SPECIFIC RNA SEQUENCES IN MYOCARDIAL BIOPSY SAMPLES FROM PATIENTS WITH MYOCARDITIS AND DILATED CARDIOMYOPATHY , 1986, The Lancet.

[133]  B. Rouse,et al.  Viral replication is required for induction of ocular immunopathology by herpes simplex virus , 1996, Journal of virology.

[134]  S. Swedo,et al.  Tubulin Is a Neuronal Target of Autoantibodies in Sydenham’s Chorea1 , 2007, The Journal of Immunology.

[135]  E. Adachi-Usami,et al.  Haemophilus influenzae has a GM1 ganglioside-like structure and elicits Guillain–Barré syndrome , 1999, Neurology.

[136]  G. B. West,et al.  British Society for Immunology , 1957 .

[137]  P. Lodge,et al.  Cardiac injury in myocarditis induced by Coxsackievirus group B, type 3 in Balb/c mice is mediated by Lyt 2 + cytolytic lymphocytes. , 1984, Cellular immunology.

[138]  R. Fujinami,et al.  Can virus infections trigger autoimmune disease? , 2001, Journal of autoimmunity.

[139]  T. Tumpey,et al.  IFN-gamma and IL-2 are protective in the skin but pathologic in the corneas of HSV-1-infected mice. , 1992, Journal of immunology.

[140]  J. Oakes,et al.  Linkage of IL-6 with neutrophil chemoattractant expression in virus-induced ocular inflammation. , 2002, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[141]  A. Heiligenhaus,et al.  Incidence and severity of herpetic stromal keratitis: impaired by the depletion of lymph node macrophages. , 2001, Experimental eye research.

[142]  A. Steere,et al.  Autoimmune mechanisms in antibiotic treatment-resistant lyme arthritis. , 2001, Journal of autoimmunity.

[143]  T. Olsson,et al.  Autoreactive T and B cells responding to myelin proteolipid protein in multiple sclerosis and controls , 1991, European journal of immunology.

[144]  B. Rouse,et al.  On the essential involvement of neutrophils in the immunopathologic disease: herpetic stromal keratitis. , 1997, Journal of immunology.

[145]  L. Rorke,et al.  Experimental demyelination produced by the A59 strain of mouse hepatitis virus , 1984, Neurology.

[146]  D. Guberski,et al.  Kilham Rat Virus Triggers T-Cell–Dependent Autoimmune Diabetes in Multiple Strains of Rat , 1996, Diabetes.

[147]  K. Helmke,et al.  ISLET CELL ANTIBODIES IN CHILDREN WITH MUMPS INFECTION , 1980, The Lancet.

[148]  U. Schaible,et al.  The severe combined immunodeficiency (scid) mouse. A laboratory model for the analysis of Lyme arthritis and carditis , 1989, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[149]  A. Steere,et al.  Expression of Adhesion Molecules in Synovia of Patients with Treatment-Resistant Lyme Arthritis , 2001, Infection and Immunity.

[150]  S. Swedo,et al.  Antibody-mediated neuronal cell signaling in behavior and movement disorders , 2006, Journal of Neuroimmunology.

[151]  H. Willison,et al.  Amendment history : Erratum ( December 1999 ) Monoclonal antibodies raised against Guillain-Barré syndrome – associated Campylobacter jejuni lipopolysaccharides react with neuronal gangliosides and paralyze muscle-nerve preparations , 2018 .

[152]  J. Drijfhout,et al.  Molecular mimicry in type 1 diabetes mellitus revisited: T-cell clones to GAD65 peptides with sequence homology to Coxsackie or proinsulin peptides do not crossreact with homologous counterpart. , 2001, Human immunology.

[153]  A. Steere,et al.  Early and late antibody responses to full-length and truncated constructs of outer surface protein A of Borrelia burgdorferi in Lyme disease , 1995, Infection and immunity.

[154]  A. Teixeira,et al.  Autoimmunity in Chagas' disease: specific inhibition of reactivity of CD4+ T cells against myosin in mice chronically infected with Trypanosoma cruzi , 1989, Infection and immunity.

[155]  M. Fresno,et al.  Dominant T- and B-cell epitopes in an autoantigen linked to Chagas' disease. , 2001, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[156]  P. Murray,et al.  Uveitis: A Potentially Blinding Disease , 2004, Ophthalmologica.

[157]  C. Schmid,et al.  Treatment of Lyme arthritis. , 1994, Arthritis and rheumatism.

[158]  T. Tumpey,et al.  Neutrophil-mediated suppression of virus replication after herpes simplex virus type 1 infection of the murine cornea , 1996, Journal of virology.

[159]  M. Cunningham,et al.  Tropomyosin shares immunologic epitopes with group A streptococcal M proteins. , 1989, Journal of immunology.

[160]  H. Lipton,et al.  The predominant virus antigen burden is present in macrophages in Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus-induced demyelinating disease , 1995, Journal of virology.

[161]  L. Weiner,et al.  Experimental neuropathology of chronic demyelination induced by a JHM virus variant (DS). , 1987, Archives of neurology.

[162]  S. Miller,et al.  Virus-induced autoimmunity: potential role of viruses in initiation, perpetuation, and progression of T-cell-mediated autoimmune disease. , 2001, Viral immunology.

[163]  D. Guberski,et al.  Induction of type I diabetes by Kilham's rat virus in diabetes-resistant BB/Wor rats. , 1991, Science.

[164]  A. Heiligenhaus,et al.  Treatment of HSV-1 stromal keratitis with topical cyclosporin A: a pilot study , 1999, Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology.

[165]  W. Mitchell,et al.  Persistence of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 DNA in Chronic Conjunctival and Eyelid Lesions of Mice , 1998, Journal of Virology.

[166]  F. Pileggi,et al.  The Role of active myocarditis in the development of heart failure in chronic chagas' disease: A study based on endomyocardial biopsies , 1987, Clinical cardiology.

[167]  A. Sette,et al.  T-Cell Reactivity against Streptococcal Antigens in the Periphery Mirrors Reactivity of Heart-Infiltrating T Lymphocytes in Rheumatic Heart Disease Patients , 2001, Infection and Immunity.

[168]  J. Kalil,et al.  Induction of cardiac autoimmunity in Chagas heart disease: A case for molecular mimicry , 2006, Autoimmunity.

[169]  A. Osterhaus,et al.  Cross-reactive anti-galactocerebroside antibodies and Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections in Guillain–Barré syndrome , 2002, Journal of Neuroimmunology.

[170]  S. Tracy,et al.  Epitopes shared between coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) and normal heart tissue contribute to CVB3-induced murine myocarditis. , 1993, Clinical immunology and immunopathology.

[171]  J. Whitton,et al.  Myocarditis, Microbes and Autoimmunity , 2004, Autoimmunity.

[172]  D. Hafler,et al.  Clonal expansion and persistence of human T cells specific for an immunodominant myelin basic protein peptide. , 1994, Journal of immunology.

[173]  A. M. Davies,et al.  Experimental myocarditis: in vitro and in vivo studies of lymphocytes sensitized to heart extracts and group A streptococci. , 1971, Immunology.

[174]  R. Kurlan.  Tourette's syndrome and 'PANDAS': will the relation bear out? Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infection. , 1998, Neurology.

[175]  F. Pileggi,et al.  An in situ quantitative immunohistochemical study of cytokines and IL-2R+ in chronic human chagasic myocarditis: correlation with the presence of myocardial Trypanosoma cruzi antigens. , 1997, Clinical immunology and immunopathology.

[176]  N. Sarvetnick,et al.  Presented antigen from damaged pancreatic beta cells activates autoreactive T cells in virus-mediated autoimmune diabetes. , 2002, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[177]  F. Mokhtarian,et al.  Immune responses, and autoimmune outcome, during virus infection of the central nervous system. , 1994, Cellular immunology.

[178]  H. Staats,et al.  Cytokine expression in vivo during murine herpetic stromal keratitis. Effect of protective antibody therapy. , 1993, Journal of immunology.

[179]  D. S. Hull,et al.  Acyclovir and vidarabine monophosphate: comparison of iontophoretic and intravenous administration for the treatment of HSV-1 stromal keratitis. , 1982, The American journal of medicine.

[180]  G. Chader,et al.  Cellular immune responses of patients with uveitis to retinal antigens and their fragments. , 1990, American journal of ophthalmology.

[181]  B. McManus,et al.  Enteroviral infection of mice with severe combined immunodeficiency. Evidence for direct viral pathogenesis of myocardial injury. , 1992, Laboratory investigation; a journal of technical methods and pathology.

[182]  K. Mizuno,et al.  Monoclonal Antibody , 2020, Definitions.

[183]  T. McCormick,et al.  Trypanosoma cruzi: cross-reactive anti-heart autoantibodies produced during infection in mice. , 1989, Experimental parasitology.

[184]  S. Kosanke,et al.  Molecular analysis of human cardiac myosin-cross-reactive B- and T-cell epitopes of the group A streptococcal M5 protein , 1997, Infection and immunity.

[185]  L. Sigal,et al.  Lyme disease patients' serum contains IgM antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi that cross‐react with neuronal antigens , 1988, Neurology.

[186]  J. Fazakerley,et al.  Reconstitution of Semliki forest virus infected mice, induces immune mediated pathological changes in the CNS. , 1983, Clinical and experimental immunology.

[187]  D. Guberski,et al.  Kilham rat triggers T-cell-dependent autoimmune diabetes in multiple strains of rat. , 1996, Diabetes.

[188]  S. Barthold,et al.  Lyme borreliosis in selected strains and ages of laboratory mice. , 1990, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[189]  R. Sobel,et al.  Molecular mimicry between a viral peptide and a myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide induces autoimmune demyelinating disease in mice , 1999, Journal of Neuroimmunology.

[190]  A. Steere,et al.  The Immunoglobulin (IgG) Antibody Response to OspA and OspB Correlates with Severe and Prolonged Lyme Arthritis and the IgG Response to P35 Correlates with Mild and Brief Arthritis , 1999, Infection and Immunity.

[191]  R. Tisch,et al.  Immune response to glutamic acid decarboxylase correlates with insulitis in non-obese diabetic mice , 1993, Nature.

[192]  J. Raphaël,et al.  [Guillain-Barré syndrome]. , 2005, La Revue du praticien.

[193]  S. Miller,et al.  Class II-restricted T cell responses in Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV)-induced demyelinating disease. I. Cross-specificity among TMEV substrains and related picornaviruses, but not myelin proteins. , 1987, Journal of immunology.

[194]  A. Steere,et al.  The T helper cell response in Lyme arthritis: differential recognition of Borrelia burgdorferi outer surface protein A in patients with treatment-resistant or treatment-responsive Lyme arthritis , 1994, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[195]  S. Barthold,et al.  Central and peripheral nervous system infection, immunity, and inflammation in the nonhuman primate model of lyme borreliosis , 2001 .

[196]  P. Duray,et al.  Experimental Lyme arthritis in rats infected with Borrelia burgdorferi. , 1988, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[197]  Byung S. Kim,et al.  Immune mechanisms of Theiler's virus-induced demyelination , 1999, Experimental & Molecular Medicine.

[198]  L Steinman,et al.  Multiple Sclerosis: A Coordinated Immunological Attack against Myelin in the Central Nervous System , 1996, Cell.

[199]  M. Lopes,et al.  Follow-up of 18 patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection and chronic Chagas' disease, with reactivation of Chagas' disease causing cardiac disease in three patients. , 1998, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[200]  A. Steere,et al.  Identification of LFA-1 as a candidate autoantigen in treatment-resistant Lyme arthritis. , 1998, Science.

[201]  A. Steere,et al.  Association of treatment-resistant chronic Lyme arthritis with HLA-DR4 and antibody reactivity to OspA and OspB of Borrelia burgdorferi , 1993, Infection and immunity.

[202]  W. Kwok,et al.  Tegument-Specific, Virus-Reactive CD4 T Cells Localize to the Cornea in Herpes Simplex Virus Interstitial Keratitis in Humans , 2000, Journal of Virology.

[203]  M. Rossi,et al.  Anti-CD4 abrogates rejection and reestablishes long-term tolerance to syngeneic newborn hearts grafted in mice chronically infected with Trypanosoma cruzi , 1992, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[204]  R. Hendricks,et al.  Interferon gamma regulates platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule 1 expression and neutrophil infiltration into herpes simplex virus- infected mouse corneas , 1996, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[205]  J. Wolinsky,et al.  Monoclonal antibody to rubella virus capsid protein recognizes a beta-cell antigen. , 1993, Journal of immunology.

[206]  S. Huber.  Coxsackievirus-induced myocarditis is dependent on distinct immunopathogenic responses in different strains of mice. , 1997, Laboratory investigation; a journal of technical methods and pathology.

[207]  J. Kurtzke.  Epidemiologic evidence for multiple sclerosis as an infection , 1993, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[208]  G. Cooper,et al.  Linking environmental agents and autoimmune disease: an agenda for future research. , 1999, Environmental health perspectives.

[209]  R. Cedillos,et al.  Longitudinal study of immune response in human Chagas' disease , 1985, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[210]  C. Chizzolini,et al.  Chagas' disease cardioneuropathy: association of anti-Trypanosoma cruzi and anti-sciatic nerve antibodies. , 1993, The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene.

[211]  S. Swedo,et al.  Mimicry and autoantibody-mediated neuronal cell signaling in Sydenham chorea , 2003, Nature Medicine.

[212]  S. Williams,et al.  A monoclonal antibody to Borrelia burgdorferi flagellin modifies neuroblastoma cell neuritogenesis in vitro: a possible role for autoimmunity in the neuropathy of Lyme disease , 1997, Infection and immunity.

[213]  W. V. Van Voorhis,et al.  FL-160 proteins of Trypanosoma cruzi are expressed from a multigene family and contain two distinct epitopes that mimic nervous tissues , 1993, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[214]  B. McManus,et al.  Coxsackievirus B3 Replication System by Curcumin Suppresses Dysregulation of the Ubiquitin-proteasome , 2006 .

[215]  Taki,et al.  Penner's serotype 4 of Campylobacter jejuni has a lipopolysaccharide that bears a GM1 ganglioside epitope as well as one that bears a GD1 a epitope , 1994, Infection and immunity.

[216]  P. Lehmann,et al.  T cell cross-reactivity between coxsackievirus and glutamate decarboxylase is associated with a murine diabetes susceptibility allele , 1994, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[217]  M. de Souza,et al.  Exacerbation of Lyme arthritis in beige mice. , 1995, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[218]  C. Berek,et al.  Analysis of the presence of Trypanosoma cruzi in the heart tissue of three patients with chronic Chagas' heart disease. , 2003, The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene.

[219]  L. Sigal.  Cross-reactivity between Borrelia burgdorferi flagellin and a human axonal 64,000 molecular weight protein. , 1993, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[220]  V. Singh,et al.  Molecular mimicry between uveitopathogenic site of retinal S-antigen and Escherichia coli protein: induction of experimental autoimmune uveitis and lymphocyte cross-reaction. , 1989, Cellular immunology.

[221]  J. Kalil,et al.  Molecular mimicry between cardiac myosin and Trypanosoma cruzi antigen B13: identification of a B13-driven human T cell clone that recognizes cardiac myosin. , 1997, Brazilian journal of medical and biological research = Revista brasileira de pesquisas medicas e biologicas.

[222]  N. Rose,et al.  From infection to autoimmunity. , 2001, Journal of autoimmunity.

[223]  A. Gearing,et al.  Viral infection induces cytokine release by beta islet cells. , 1992, Immunology.

[224]  W. Souza,et al.  A monoclonal antibody to Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes recognizes a myosin tail epitope , 2001, Parasitology Research.

[225]  R. Kurlan.  Tourette's syndrome and ‘PANDAS’ Will the relation bear out? , 1998, Neurology.

[226]  U. Meneghelli.  Chagasic enteropathy. , 2004, Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical.

[227]  V. Fischetti,et al.  Induction of Autoimmune Valvular Heart Disease by Recombinant Streptococcal M Protein , 2001, Infection and Immunity.

[228]  P. A. Schad,et al.  Plaque-associated expression of human herpesvirus 6 in multiple sclerosis. , 1995, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[229]  B. McManus,et al.  Proteasome inhibition reduces coxsackievirus B3 replication in murine cardiomyocytes. , 2003, The American journal of pathology.

[230]  B. Bigalke,et al.  The humoral immune response in viral heart disease: characterization and pathophysiological significance of antibodies , 2004, Medical Microbiology and Immunology.

[231]  A. Steere,et al.  Association of antibiotic treatment-resistant Lyme arthritis with T cell responses to dominant epitopes of outer surface protein A of Borrelia burgdorferi. , 1999, Arthritis and rheumatism.

[232]  C. Briani,et al.  Induction of anti-GM1 ganglioside antibodies by Campylobacter jejuni lipopolysaccharides , 1997, Journal of Neuroimmunology.

[233]  C. Teuscher,et al.  Distinct Characteristics of Resistance toBorrelia burgdorferi-Induced Arthritis in C57BL/6N Mice , 1998, Infection and Immunity.

[234]  J. Fazakerley,et al.  In vivo depletion of CD8+ T cells prevents lesions of demyelination in Semliki Forest virus infection , 1993, Journal of virology.

[235]  A. Notkins,et al.  Infection of human pancreatic beta cell cultures with mumps virus , 1978, Nature.

[236]  W. V. Van Voorhis,et al.  Molecular mimicry by Trypanosoma cruzi: the F1-160 epitope that mimics mammalian nerve can be mapped to a 12-amino acid peptide. , 1991, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[237]  H. Endtz,et al.  Campylobacter jejuni lipopolysaccharides from Guillain-Barré syndrome patients induce IgG anti-GM1 antibodies in rabbits. , 2000, Journal of neuroimmunology.

[238]  F. Pileggi,et al.  Anin SituQuantitative Immunohistochemical Study of Cytokines and IL-2R+in Chronic Human Chagasic Myocarditis: Correlation with the Presence of MyocardialTrypanosoma cruziAntigens , 1997 .

[239]  A. Teixeira,et al.  Trypanosoma cruzi-sensitized T-lymphocyte mediated 51CR release from human heart cells in Chagas' disease. , 1978, The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene.

[240]  M. Cunningham,et al.  Cytotoxic mAb from rheumatic carditis recognizes heart valves and laminin. , 2000, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[241]  F. Mokhtarian,et al.  Predisposition to EAE induction in resistant mice by prior infection with Semliki Forest virus. , 1987, Journal of immunology.

[242]  B. Rouse,et al.  Virus-induced immunoinflammatory lesions in the absence of viral antigen recognition. , 1998, Journal of immunology.

[243]  D. Engman,et al.  Cardiac Myosin Autoimmunity in Acute Chagas' Heart Disease , 2001, Infection and Immunity.

[244]  A. Steere,et al.  Binding of outer surface protein A and human lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1 peptides to HLA-DR molecules associated with antibiotic treatment-resistant Lyme arthritis. , 2003, Arthritis and rheumatism.

[245]  H. Jun,et al.  A new look at viruses in type 1 diabetes. , 2003, Diabetes/metabolism research and reviews.

[246]  J. Kurtzke,et al.  Multiple sclerosis in the Faroe Islands: an epitome. , 2001, Journal of clinical epidemiology.

[247]  A. Steere,et al.  Molecular Mimicry in Lyme Arthritis Demonstrated at the Single Cell Level: LFA-1αL Is a Partial Agonist for Outer Surface Protein A-Reactive T Cells1 , 2001, The Journal of Immunology.

[248]  C. Lawson.  Evidence for mimicry by viral antigens in animal models of autoimmune disease including myocarditis , 2000, Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences CMLS.

[249]  W. Hildebrand,et al.  T Cell Mimicry and Epitope Specificity of Cross-Reactive T Cell Clones from Rheumatic Heart Disease1 , 2005, The Journal of Immunology.

[250]  J. Kurtzke.  Multiple sclerosis in time and space--geographic clues to cause. , 2000, Journal of neurovirology.

[251]  V. Dennis,et al.  Pathogenesis of Lyme neuroborreliosis: Borrelia burgdorferi lipoproteins induce both proliferation and apoptosis in rhesus monkey astrocytes , 2003, European journal of immunology.

[252]  G. Atkins,et al.  Role of interferon‐γ and nitric oxide in the neuropathogenesis of avirulent Semliki Forest virus infection , 2003, Neuropathology and applied neurobiology.

[253]  A. Toubert,et al.  Mimicry in Recognition of Cardiac Myosin Peptides by Heart-Intralesional T Cell Clones from Rheumatic Heart Disease1 , 2006, The Journal of Immunology.

[254]  M. Atkinson,et al.  Acceleration of type 1 diabetes by a coxsackievirus infection requires a preexisting critical mass of autoreactive T-cells in pancreatic islets. , 2000, Diabetes.

[255]  A. McDonald,et al.  Lipopolysaccharides from Campylobacter jejuni associated with Guillain-Barré syndrome patients mimic human gangliosides in structure , 1994, Infection and immunity.

[256]  T. Tumpey,et al.  Early cytokine synthesis in the excised mouse cornea. , 1996, Journal of interferon & cytokine research : the official journal of the International Society for Interferon and Cytokine Research.

[257]  R. Kandolf,et al.  Enteroviral RNA replication in the myocardium of patients with left ventricular dysfunction and clinically suspected myocarditis. , 1999, Circulation.

[258]  A. Osterhaus,et al.  Herpes simplex virus-specific T cells infiltrate the cornea of patients with herpetic stromal keratitis: no evidence for autoreactive T cells. , 2000, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[259]  T. C. Jones,et al.  Nonhuman Primates I , 1993, Monographs on Pathology of Laboratory Animals.

[260]  J. Sa,et al.  Guillain-Barré syndrome. , 2000 .

[261]  K. Hirata,et al.  Carbohydrate mimicry between human ganglioside GM1 and Campylobacter jejuni lipooligosaccharide causes Guillain-Barre syndrome. , 2004, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.