Microcomputed tomography imaging of skeletal development and growth.

Skeletogenesis is an exquisitely orchestrated and dynamic process, culminating in the formation of highly variable and complex mineralized structures that are optimized for their function. While cellular and molecular biology studies have provided tremendous recent progress toward understanding how patterns of bone formation are regulated, high resolution imaging techniques such as microcomputed tomography (micro-CT) can provide complementary quantitative information about the progressive changes in three-dimensional (3-D) skeletal morphology and density that occur during early skeletal development and postnatal growth. Furthermore, recently developed in vivo micro-CT systems promise to be a powerful and efficient tool for noninvasively monitoring normal skeletogenesis, as well as for evaluating the effects of genetic or environmental manipulation. This review focuses on the use of micro-CT imaging and analysis to better understand normal and abnormal skeletal development and growth.

[1]  B. A. Byers,et al.  Addressing cell-sourcing limitations with gene therapy , 2003, IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine.

[2]  Arun K Gosain,et al.  Microfocal CT: a method for evaluating murine cranial sutures in situ. , 2004, The Journal of surgical research.

[3]  Laurence Vico,et al.  Noninvasive In Vivo Monitoring of Bone Architecture Alterations in Hindlimb‐Unloaded Female Rats Using Novel Three‐Dimensional Microcomputed Tomography , 2003, Journal of bone and mineral research : the official journal of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

[4]  Gordon J Harris,et al.  CT imaging of craniofacial malformations. , 2003, Neuroimaging clinics of North America.

[5]  H. Anderson,et al.  Impaired calcification around matrix vesicles of growth plate and bone in alkaline phosphatase-deficient mice. , 2004, The American journal of pathology.

[6]  R E Guldberg,et al.  Analyzing bone, blood vessels, and biomaterials with microcomputed tomography. , 2003, IEEE engineering in medicine and biology magazine : the quarterly magazine of the Engineering in Medicine & Biology Society.

[7]  K. Jepsen,et al.  Targeted overexpression of androgen receptor in osteoblasts: unexpected complex bone phenotype in growing animals. , 2004, Endocrinology.

[8]  D. Hatcher,et al.  Micro X-ray computed tomography analysis for the evaluation of asymmetrical condylar growth in the rat. , 2003, Orthodontics & craniofacial research.

[9]  A. Economides,et al.  Skeletal overexpression of noggin results in osteopenia and reduced bone formation. , 2003, Endocrinology.

[10]  D. Norman,et al.  Computerized tomography of cranial sutures. Part 1: Comparison of suture anatomy in children and adults. , 1984, Journal of neurosurgery.

[11]  W. P. Blount.  Fractures in children. , 1954, Schweizerische medizinische Wochenschrift.

[12]  T. Albrektsson,et al.  Alterations in bone regenerative capacity after low level gamma irradiation. A quantitative study. , 1985, Scandinavian journal of plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[13]  J. Richtsmeier,et al.  Growth-related shape changes in the fetal craniofacial complex of humans (Homo sapiens) and pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina): a 3D-CT comparative analysis. , 2003, American journal of physical anthropology.

[14]  F. Gudinchet,et al.  Three-dimensional spiral CT of craniofacial malformations in children , 2000, Pediatric Radiology.

[15]  R Huiskes,et al.  Increase in bone volume fraction precedes architectural adaptation in growing bone. , 2001, Bone.

[16]  G. Hounsfield.  Computerized transverse axial scanning (tomography): Part I. Description of system. 1973. , 1973, The British journal of radiology.

[17]  S A Goldstein,et al.  Temporal and Spatial Characterization of Regenerate Bone in the Lengthened Rabbit Tibia , 1999, Journal of bone and mineral research : the official journal of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

[18]  M. Kelley,et al.  Development of the Acetabulum and Hip: Computed Tomography Analysis of the Axial Plane , 1993, Journal of pediatric orthopedics.

[19]  R. Schlosser,et al.  Three-dimensional computed tomography of congenital nasal anomalies. , 2002, International journal of pediatric otorhinolaryngology.

[20]  J. Helms,et al.  Molecular ontogeny of the skeleton. , 2003, Birth defects research. Part C, Embryo today : reviews.

[21]  S. Hollister,et al.  Are regional variations in bone growth related to mechanical stress and strain parameters? , 1998, Journal of biomechanics.

[22]  Hideyuki Azegami,et al.  Buckling and bone modeling as factors in the development of idiopathic scoliosis. , 2003, Spine.

[23]  J. Sayre,et al.  Differential effect of race on the axial and appendicular skeletons of children. , 1998, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[24]  M. Goran,et al.  Early identification of children predisposed to low peak bone mass and osteoporosis later in life. , 2000, The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism.

[25]  P. Rüegsegger,et al.  Bone densitometry using computed tomography. Part I: selective determination of trabecular bone density and other bone mineral parameters. Normal values in children and adults. , 1979, The British journal of radiology.

[26]  W. R. Taylor,et al.  Quantitative microcomputed tomography analysis of collateral vessel development after ischemic injury. , 2004, American journal of physiology. Heart and circulatory physiology.

[27]  H Weinans,et al.  Detecting and tracking local changes in the tibiae of individual rats: a novel method to analyse longitudinal in vivo micro-CT data. , 2004, Bone.

[28]  S. Goldstein,et al.  The direct examination of three‐dimensional bone architecture in vitro by computed tomography , 1989, Journal of bone and mineral research : the official journal of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

[29]  Angela Lin,et al.  Quantitative microcomputed tomography analysis of mineralization within three-dimensional scaffolds in vitro. , 2004, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A.

[30]  S R Matteson,et al.  Clinical usefulness of two-dimensional reformatted and three-dimensionally rendered computerized tomographic images: literature review and a survey of surgeons' opinions. , 1995, Journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery : official journal of the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons.

[31]  S. Neubauer,et al.  High‐resolution imaging of normal anatomy, and neural and adrenal malformations in mouse embryos using magnetic resonance microscopy , 2003, Journal of anatomy.

[32]  Dietmar W Hutmacher,et al.  Analysis of 3D bone ingrowth into polymer scaffolds via micro-computed tomography imaging. , 2004, Biomaterials.

[33]  B. Hallgrímsson,et al.  Imaging skeletal pathology in mutant mice by microcomputed tomography. , 2003, The Journal of rheumatology.

[34]  A. Elster,et al.  Suture closure in the human chondrocranium: CT assessment. , 1995, Radiology.

[35]  S. Goldstein,et al.  Evaluation of a microcomputed tomography system to study trabecular bone structure , 1990, Journal of orthopaedic research : official publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society.

[36]  A. Miller,et al.  A three-dimensional, quantitative computed tomographic study of changes in distribution of bone mineralization in the developing human mandible. , 2001, Archives of oral biology.

[37]  Nobuhiko Sugano,et al.  Three-Dimensional Shape of the Dysplastic Femur: Implications for THR , 2003, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[38]  K. Kaga,et al.  Aplasia of zygomatic arch and dislocation of temporomandibular joint capsule in Treacher-Collins syndrome: three-dimensional reconstruction of computed tomographic scans. , 2003, International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology.

[39]  Robert E Guldberg,et al.  Microarchitectural and mechanical characterization of oriented porous polymer scaffolds. , 2003, Biomaterials.

[40]  G. Koren,et al.  Physicians' perceptions of teratogenic risk associated with radiography and CT during early pregnancy. , 2004, AJR. American journal of roentgenology.

[41]  J L Kuhn,et al.  Characterization of regional and age‐related variations in the growth of the rabbit distal femur , 1997, Journal of orthopaedic research : official publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society.

[42]  F Peyrin,et al.  Microarchitectural and Physical Changes During Fetal Growth in Human Vertebral Bone , 2003, Journal of bone and mineral research : the official journal of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

[43]  A. Yamaguchi,et al.  Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Proliferation and Differentiation of Osteoblast-like Cells , 1997, Journal of dental research.

[44]  K. Paige,et al.  Predicting the Risk of Reoperation in Metopic Synostosis: A Quantitative CT Scan Analysis , 2003, Annals of plastic surgery.