Prevention of biofilm growth on man-made surfaces: evaluation of antialgal activity of two biocides and photocatalytic nanoparticles

As algal growth on man-made surfaces impacts their appearance, biocides and surfaces with self-cleaning properties are widely used in the building and paint industries. The objective of this study was to evaluate the antialgal activity of two biocides (triazine and isothiazoline) and photocatalytic nanoparticles of zinc oxide (20–60 nm). An aeroterrestrial green, microalgal strain of the genus Stichococcus was chosen as the test organism. By comparing a set of different structural and physiological performance parameters, lethal and also sublethal (chronic) effects were determined. Even though the herbicide triazine effectively inhibited growth (EC50 = 1.6 μmol l−1) and photosynthetic performance, structural properties (eg membrane integrity) were unaffected at the EC100 (250 μmol l−1), hence this herbicide did not kill the algal cells. In contrast, and due to their multiple modes of action, isothiazoline and the photocatalytic nanoparticles (the latter activated with low UV radiation) severely impacted all performance and structural parameters.

[1]  Lothar Erdinger,et al.  Disinfection of surfaces by photocatalytic oxidation with titanium dioxide and UVA light. , 2003, Chemosphere.

[2]  I. Klimant,et al.  A new in vivo fluorimetric technique to measure growth of adhering phototrophic microorganisms , 1996, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[3]  P Isnard,et al.  Statistical analysis of regulatory ecotoxicity tests. , 2001, Chemosphere.

[4]  S. Wright,et al.  Phytoplankton Pigments in Oceanography: Guidelines to Modern Methods , 1997 .

[5]  U. Karsten,et al.  MYCOSPORINE‐LIKE AMINO ACIDS AND PHYLOGENIES IN GREEN ALGAE: PRASIOLA AND ITS RELATIVES FROM THE TREBOUXIOPHYCEAE (CHLOROPHYTA) 1 , 2005 .

[6]  J. Gopal,et al.  Photocatalytic Inhibition of Microbial Adhesion by Anodized Titanium , 2004, Biofouling.

[7]  J. Briand.  Marine antifouling laboratory bioassays: an overview of their diversity , 2009, Biofouling.

[8]  U. Karsten,et al.  Chloroidium, a common terrestrial coccoid green alga previously assigned to Chlorella (Trebouxiophyceae, Chlorophyta) , 2010 .

[9]  A. Fujishima,et al.  TiO2 Photocatalysis: A Historical Overview and Future Prospects , 2005 .

[10]  T. Lund,et al.  Long-term effect of Sea-Nine on natural coastal phytoplankton communities assessed by pollution induced community tolerance. , 2003, Aquatic toxicology.

[11]  Darlene K. Slattery,et al.  Photocatalytic Inhibition of Algae Growth Using TiO2, WO3, and Cocatalyst Modifications , 2000 .

[12]  Cesáreo Sáiz-Jiménez,et al.  Factors affecting the weathering and colonization of monuments by phototrophic microorganisms , 1995 .

[13]  G. Bartosz,et al.  2,7‐DICHLOROFLUORESCIN OXIDATION AND REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES: WHAT DOES IT MEASURE? , 2000, Cell biology international.

[14]  T. Beer,et al.  New records of microalgae from the New Zealand alpine zone, and their distribution and dispersal , 2008 .

[15]  Norbert Häubner,et al.  Chlorophyll extraction methods for the quantification of green microalgae colonizing building facades , 2005 .

[16]  V. Brotas,et al.  Identification et quantification des pigments chlorophylliens et caroténoïdes des sédiments marins : un protocole d'analyse par HPLC , 1996 .

[17]  U. Karsten,et al.  In vivo growth fluorometry: accuracy and limits of microalgal growth rate measurements in ecophysiological investigations , 2009 .

[18]  N. Mallick,et al.  Reactive oxygen species: response of algal cells , 2000 .

[19]  R. Sairam,et al.  Oxidative stress and antioxidative system in plants , 2002 .

[20]  B. Pawlik-Skowrońska,et al.  Relationships between acid-soluble thiol peptides and accumulated Pb in the green alga Stichococcus bacillaris. , 2000, Aquatic toxicology.

[21]  M. Gondal,et al.  Laser-enhanced photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants from water using ZnO semiconductor catalyst , 2007, Journal of environmental science and health. Part A, Toxic/hazardous substances & environmental engineering.

[22]  Richard D. Handy,et al.  The ecotoxicology of nanoparticles and nanomaterials: current status, knowledge gaps, challenges, and future needs , 2008, Ecotoxicology.

[23]  U. Karsten,et al.  New and Fast Method To Quantify Respiration Rates of Bacterial and Plankton Communities in Freshwater Ecosystems by Using Optical Oxygen Sensor Spots , 2007, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[24]  Christine C. Gaylarde,et al.  Deteriogenic biofilms on buildings and their control: A review , 1999 .

[25]  V. Utgikar,et al.  Acute toxicity of heavy metals to acetate‐utilizing mixed cultures of sulfate‐reducing bacteria: EC100 and EC50 , 2001, Environmental toxicology and chemistry.

[26]  Wei-Chen Kao,et al.  A novel algal toxicity testing technique for assessing the toxicity of both metallic and organic toxicants. , 2005, Water research.

[27]  K Botzenhart,et al.  Reactive Oxygen Species , 2014 .

[28]  N. Wasmund.  Micro-autoradiographic determination of the viability of algae inhabiting deep sediment layers , 1989 .

[29]  Edward J. Wolfrum,et al.  Bactericidal Activity of Photocatalytic TiO2 Reaction: toward an Understanding of Its Killing Mechanism , 1999, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[30]  U. Karsten,et al.  The effects of ultraviolet radiation on photosynthetic performance, growth and sunscreen compounds in aeroterrestrial biofilm algae isolated from building facades , 2007, Planta.

[31]  C. Gaylarde,et al.  Microbial impact on building materials: an overview , 2003 .

[32]  Philip S. Stewart,et al.  Physiological heterogeneity in biofilms , 2008, Nature Reviews Microbiology.

[33]  Sung-Hwan Lee,et al.  Inactivation of bacterial endospores by photocatalytic nanocomposites. , 2005, Colloids and surfaces. B, Biointerfaces.

[34]  S. Görs,et al.  Multi-proxy Reconstruction of Trophic State, Hypolimnetic Anoxia and Phototrophic Sulphur Bacteria Abundance in a Dimictic Lake in Northern Germany over the past 80 Years , 2007 .

[35]  A. Fujishima,et al.  Heterogeneous photocatalysis: From water photolysis to applications in environmental cleanup , 2007 .

[36]  M. Veldhuis,et al.  Cell death in phytoplankton: correlation between changes in membrane permeability, photosynthetic activity, pigmentation and growth , 2001 .

[37]  P. Colepicolo,et al.  Changes in superoxide dismutase activity and photosynthetic pigment content during growth of marine phytoplankters in batch-cultures. , 2002, Physiologia plantarum.

[38]  V. Nadtochenko,et al.  New Evidence for TiO2 Photocatalysis during Bilayer Lipid Peroxidation , 2004 .

[39]  Lei Liu,et al.  Senescence- and death-related alteration of chlorophylls and carotenoids in marine phytoplankton , 2002 .

[40]  H. Okamura,et al.  Photodegradation of Irgarol 1051 in water , 1999 .

[41]  Harold C. Bold,et al.  The Morphology of Chlamydomonas chlamydogama, Sp. Nov. , 1949 .

[42]  C. Osmond.  What is photoinhibition? Some insights from comparisons of shade and sun plants , 1994 .

[43]  A. Ekramoddoullah,et al.  Molecular mechanism of action of Pb2+ and Zn2+ on water oxidizing complex of photosystem II , 1994, FEBS letters.

[44]  A. Lewitus,et al.  LIGHT RESPIRATION IN SIX ESTUARINE PHYTOPLANKTON SPECIES: CONTRASTS UNDER PHOTOAUTOTROPHIC AND MIXOTROPHIC GROWTH CONDITIONS 1 , 1995 .

[45]  J. Pincemail,et al.  [Oxidative stress]. , 2007, Revue medicale de Liege.

[46]  P. Illmer,et al.  Effect of temperature and pH on the toxicity of aluminium towards two new, soil born species of Arthrobacter sp. , 2004, Journal of basic microbiology.

[47]  Tslil Ophir,et al.  A Role for Exopolysaccharides in the Protection of Microorganisms from Desiccation , 1994, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[48]  Glen A. Tarran,et al.  Impact of antifouling booster biocides on single microalgal species and on a natural marine phytoplankton community , 2005 .

[49]  K. Douglas,et al.  Chemical reactivity of some isothiazolone biocides. , 1990, The Journal of applied bacteriology.

[50]  D. D. Goehringer,et al.  PHYTOPLANKTON DYNAMICS IN A STABLY STRATIFIED ANTARCTIC LAKE DURING WINTER DARKNESS , 2000 .

[51]  E. Manders,et al.  Studying undisturbed autotrophic biofilms: still a technical challenge , 2004 .

[52]  P. Juneau,et al.  Comparison of Cd, Cu, and Zn toxic effects on four marine phytoplankton by pulse‐amplitude‐modulated fluorometry , 2005, Environmental toxicology and chemistry.

[53]  U. Schreiber,et al.  New type of dual-channel PAM chlorophyll fluorometer for highly sensitive water toxicity biotests , 2004, Photosynthesis Research.

[54]  U. Karsten,et al.  Quantification of algal biofilms colonising building materials: chlorophyll a measured by PAM-fluorometry as a biomass parameter , 2006, Biofouling.

[55]  U. Karsten,et al.  Aeroterrestrial Microalgae Growing in Biofilms on Facades—Response to Temperature and Water Stress , 2006, Microbial Ecology.

[56]  A. Z. Miller,et al.  Reproducing stone monument photosynthetic-based colonization under laboratory conditions. , 2008, The Science of the total environment.

[57]  A. Couté,et al.  Factors involved in the colonisation of building façades by algae and cyanobacteria in France , 2006, Biofouling.

[58]  P. Workman,et al.  Synthesis of isothiazol-3-one derivatives as inhibitors of histone acetyltransferases (HATs). , 2009, Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry.

[59]  S. Nuti,et al.  Role of intracellular calcium and S-glutathionylation in cell death induced by a mixture of isothiazolinones in HL60 cells. , 2009, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[60]  Andrew Mills,et al.  An overview of semiconductor photocatalysis , 1997 .

[61]  J. Eheart,et al.  A modeling study of carbon and light limitation in algal biofilms , 1990, Biotechnology and bioengineering.

[62]  A. Mostaert,et al.  Aeroterrestrial Algae Growing on Man-Made Surfaces , 2007 .

[63]  B. Leadbeater,et al.  The control of calcification of antifouling paints in hard waters using a phosphonate inhibitor , 1996 .

[64]  F. Rindi.  Diversity, Distribution and Ecology of Green Algae and Cyanobacteria in Urban Habitats , 2007 .

[65]  G. L. Willingham,et al.  Degradation of antifouling biocides. , 1996, Biofouling.