Assessment of microstructures and mechanical behaviour of metallic materials through non-destructive characterisation

Abstract Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) of materials for characterising various key microstructural features, mechanical properties (tension, creep, fatigue crack growth, hardness and fracture toughness), deformation and damage mechanisms has attracted considerable attention in the past 20 years as a primary step towards ensuring structural integrity of components. However, until recently, the correlations between the various NDE parameters and material properties have been only empirical and based on physical principles. The interaction between the NDE probing medium and the mechanical behaviour is not yet fully understood. The purpose of this review is to discuss the progress made in the application of non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques in evaluating various microstructural features and mechanical properties with emphasis on recent studies. Reinterpretation of older data, in the light of present understanding of the interaction of the NDE probing medium with material parameters, is carried out selectively. The NDT techniques evaluated include acoustic emission, ultrasonic attenuation and velocity, magnetic hysteresis parameters, magnetic Barkhausen emission, acoustic Barkhausen emission, laser interferometry, positron annihilation, X-ray diffraction and small angle neutron scattering. Critical assessments of the applicability of the various NDE techniques for the material parameters are provided.

[1]  I. Palmer,et al.  Acoustic emission measurements on reactor pressure vessel steel , 1973 .

[2]  A. Mager,et al.  ber den Einflu der Korngre auf die Koerzitivkraft , 1952 .

[3]  Rohn Truell,et al.  Scattering of a Plane Longitudinal Wave by a Spherical Obstacle in an Isotropically Elastic Solid , 1956 .

[4]  M. Roth,et al.  Small-angle neutron scattering investigation of voids in creep-deformed alloy 800 , 1981 .

[5]  C. Scruby,et al.  Origin of acoustic emission in AlZnMg alloys II: Copper-containing quaternary alloys , 1983 .

[6]  C. Sayers.  Ultrasonic velocity dispersion in porous materials , 1981 .

[7]  J. Cohen,et al.  Residual Stress: Measurement by Diffraction and Interpretation , 1987 .

[8]  S. Hirsekorn,et al.  The scattering of ultrasonic waves by polycrystals , 1982 .

[9]  M. Moilanen,et al.  Detection of plastic deformation during fatigue of mild steel by the measurement of Barkhausen noise , 1979 .

[10]  Baldev Raj,et al.  Microstructural characterization of quenched and tempered 0.2% carbon steel using magnetic Barkhausen noise analysis , 1997 .

[11]  M. R. Govindaraju,et al.  Nondestructive evaluation of creep damage in power-plant steam generators and piping by magnetic measurements , 1997 .

[12]  R. Harrington,et al.  Acoustic emissions of fatigue crack growth , 1973 .

[13]  W. L. Haworth.  HOLOGRAPHIC STUDY OF FATIGUE DEFORMATION AND CRACK GROWTH IN METALS , 1979 .

[14]  M. Kersten.  Zur Theorie der Koerzitivkraft , 1948 .

[15]  M. Otala,et al.  Non-destructive magnetic measurement of steel grain size , 1976 .

[16]  W. L. Haworth,et al.  Holographic detection of fatigue-induced surface deformation and crack growth in a high-strength aluminum alloy , 1980 .

[17]  C. Wert,et al.  Effect of Inclusions on Coercive Force of Iron , 1950 .

[18]  Ulf Stigh,et al.  Influence of damage on ultrasonic velocity and strength—analysis and experiments , 1987 .

[19]  Gerd Dobmann,et al.  Integration of NDT into life time management , 1997 .

[20]  T. Jayakumar,et al.  Grain size measurements in austenitic stainless steel using ultrasonics , 1994 .

[21]  R. L. Smith,et al.  The propagation of ultrasound in porous media , 1982 .

[22]  Baldev Raj,et al.  Ultrasonic velocity measurements for characterizing the annealing behaviour of cold worked austenitic stainless steel , 2000 .

[23]  A. Wafik,et al.  Effect of Carbon Content and Heat Treatment on Barkhausen Jumps in Steel , 1991 .

[24]  K. Lynn,et al.  Positron lifetime studies made in fatigue damaged AISI 4340 Samples , 1976 .

[25]  C. Scruby,et al.  Influence of microstructure on acoustic emission during deformation of aluminium alloys , 1981 .

[26]  W. Hartman.  Acoustic emission and the Portevin-Le Chatelier effect , 1974 .

[27]  M. Kikuchi,et al.  Acoustic-emission crack monitoring in fracture-toughness tests for AISI 4340 and SA533B steels , 1981 .

[28]  T. Jayakumar,et al.  Effect of tensile deformation on micromagnetic parameters in 0.2% carbon steel and 2.25Cr–1Mo steel , 1999 .

[29]  C. H. Cáceres,et al.  Acoustic emission and deformation bands in Al-2.5% Mg and Cu-30% Zn , 1987 .

[30]  W. L. Morris,et al.  Acoustic harmonic generation at unbonded interfaces and fatigue cracks , 1978 .

[31]  D. Jiles,et al.  Magnetic Property Evaluation of Creep Damaged Cr-Mo Steel Components used in Power Plants , 1995 .

[32]  Baldev Raj,et al.  Influence of grain size on ultrasonic spectral parameters in AISI type 316 stainless steel , 1999 .

[33]  T. Jayakumar,et al.  Effect of different stages of tensile deformation on micromagnetic parameters in high-strength, low-alloy steel , 1999 .

[34]  J. Kameda,et al.  Nondestructive evaluation of steels using acoustic and magnetic barkhausen signals—II. Effect of intergranular impurity segregation , 1987 .

[35]  J. Bulloch.  The small punch toughness test: some detailed fractographic information , 1995 .

[36]  F. Nogata,et al.  A Creep Damage Estimation Method for In-Service Fossil Fuel Boiler Superheater Tubes , 1995 .

[37]  T. Jayakumar,et al.  MAGNETIC METHODS FOR CHARACTERISATION OF COLD ROLLED AISI TYPE 304 STAINLESS STEEL , 1993 .

[38]  Baldev Raj,et al.  Ultrasonic velocity measurements for estimation of grain size in austenitic stainless steel , 1995 .

[39]  E. Papadakis.  Ultrasonic Attenuation and Velocity in Three Transformation Products in Steel , 1963 .

[40]  Kazuo Yoshida,et al.  Application of positron annihilation line-shape analysis to fatigue damage for nuclear plant materials , 1996 .

[41]  W. Wampler,et al.  A study of precipitate formation in aluminium-copper alloys by positron annihilation and transmission electron microscopy , 1980 .

[42]  C. Heiple,et al.  Acoustic emission from dislocation motion in precipitation-strengthened alloys , 1981 .

[43]  Fatigue monitoring by laser speckle , 1991 .

[44]  W. Gerberich,et al.  Investigation of crack-growth stress-wave relationships , 1968 .

[45]  D. Jiles,et al.  Effects of cyclic stress on the magnetic hysteresis parameters of polycrystalline iron , 1992 .

[46]  Microstructural, mechanical and magnetic-properties of high-strength low-alloy steel , 1991 .

[47]  J. Kameda.  Characterization of tempered martensite microstructure and embrittlement by acoustic and magnetic Barkhausen signal measurement , 1988 .

[48]  Michael Kröning,et al.  Nondestructive characterization of materials (ultrasonic and micromagnetic techniques) for strength and toughness prediction and the detection of early creep damage , 1995 .

[49]  J. W. Mackersie,et al.  The effect of nickel hardness and grain size on acoustic and electromagnetic Barkhausen emission , 1991 .

[50]  H. L. Dunegan,et al.  FRACTURE ANALYSIS BY USE OF ACOUSTIC EMISSION. , 1968 .

[51]  M. R. Govindaraju,et al.  Evaluation of fatigue damage in steel structural components by magnetoelastic Barkhausen signal analysis , 1993 .

[52]  R. Ranjan,et al.  Nondestructive evaluation of steels using acoustic and magnetic barkhausen signals—I. Effect of carbide precipitation and hardness , 1987 .

[53]  M.S.C. Bose.  A study of fatigue in ferromagnetic materials using a magnetic hysteresis technique , 1986 .

[54]  G. E. Lucas,et al.  Shear punch tests for mechanical property measurements in TEM disc-sized specimens , 1984 .

[55]  Baldev Raj,et al.  Detection of hard intermetallics in β-quenched and thermally aged Zircaloy-2 using ultrasonic measurements , 1998 .

[56]  T. K. Parnell,et al.  Fracture Toughness by Small Punch Testing , 1995 .

[57]  Baldev Raj,et al.  Acoustic emission technique for detecting micro- and macroyielding in solution-annealed AISI Type 316 austenitic stainless steel , 1995 .

[58]  K. Tandon,et al.  Acoustic emissions during deformation of polycrystalline silicon—iron , 1975 .

[59]  S. Hirsekorn.  The scattering of ultrasonic waves by polycrystals. II. Shear waves , 1983 .

[60]  Baldev Raj,et al.  Ultrasonic spectral analysis for microstructural characterization of austenitic and ferritic steels , 2000 .

[61]  D. Jiles,et al.  Barkhausen Emission Technique for Evaluating Shot Peening Quality in High Strength Steels , 1993 .

[62]  T Jayakumar,et al.  Acoustic emission behaviour during stage II fatigue crack growth in an AISI type 316 austenitic stainless steel , 1994 .

[63]  G. Briggs,et al.  Magneto-acoustic and Barkhausen emission: Their dependence on dislocations in iron , 1987 .

[64]  C. Kittel,et al.  Physical Theory of Ferromagnetic Domains , 1949 .

[65]  L. Murr,et al.  Nucleation and evolution of strain-induced martensitic (b.c.c.) embryos and substructure in stainless steel: A transmission electron microscope study , 1983 .

[66]  H. Willems,et al.  A New Method for the Measurement of Ultrasonic Absorption in Polycrystalline Materials , 1987 .

[67]  G. Briggs,et al.  The measurement of stress in steels of varying microstructure by magnetoacoustic and Barkhausen emission , 1987, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[68]  G. E. Lucas,et al.  Review of small specimen test techniques for irradiation testing , 1990 .

[69]  M. Biasini,et al.  Positron Annihilation Study of Precipitation in the 2219 Al-Cu Alloy , 1992 .

[70]  R. Pascual.  Acoustic emission and dislocation multiplication during serrated flow of an aluminum alloy , 1974 .

[71]  P. Waterman,et al.  MULTIPLE SCATTERING OF WAVES , 1961 .

[72]  High-voltage Lorentz electron microscopy studies of domain structures and magnetization processes in pearlitic steels , 1987 .

[73]  T. Jayakumar,et al.  Insight into the microstructural characterization of ferritic steels using micromagnetic parameters , 2000 .

[74]  C. H. Cáceres,et al.  Acoustic emission during non-homogeneous flow in Al MG alloys , 1983 .

[75]  G. Bernardini,et al.  Non-destructive characterization and examination of turbine blades and nickel alloys by small angle neutron scattering , 1978 .

[76]  R. Vergne,et al.  Influence of the grain size on the magnetic and magnetomechanical properties of high-purity iron , 1982 .

[77]  M. Hirao,et al.  Ultrasonic velocity change with creep damage in copper , 1990 .

[78]  M. Roth,et al.  Small angle neutron scattering study of fatigue induced grain boundary cavities , 1982 .

[79]  D. Thompson,et al.  Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation , 1982 .

[80]  A. Wafik,et al.  Barkhausen jumps and microstructure in low carbon steel , 1989 .

[81]  B. A. Lewis,et al.  TEM studies of domains and micromagnetic processes in structural steels , 1992 .

[82]  R. Fougères,et al.  ROLE OF MICROSTRUCTURAL STATES ON THE LEVEL OF BARKHAUSEN NOISE IN PURE IRON AND LOW CARBON IRON BINARY ALLOYS , 1992 .

[83]  Baldev Raj,et al.  Evaluation of induction hardened case depth through microstructural characterisation using magnetic Barkhausen emission technique , 2000 .

[84]  W. W. Gerberich,et al.  Some observations on stress wave emission as a measure of crack growth , 1967 .

[85]  O. Buck,et al.  Grain size measurement using magnetic and acoustic Barkhausen noise , 1987 .

[86]  M. Bose,et al.  Magnetic NDT Technique to Evaluate Fatigue Damage , 1984, November 16.

[87]  Q. Long,et al.  Acoustic emission during deformation of dual-phase steels , 1990 .

[88]  D. Jiles,et al.  Investigation of the Microstructural Dependence of the Magnetic Properties of 4130 Alloy Steels and Carbon Steels for NDE , 1987 .

[89]  David Jiles,et al.  Magnetic properties of decarburized steels: An investigation of the effects of grain size and carbon content , 1987 .

[90]  Robert E. Green,et al.  Ultrasonic detection of fatigue damage , 1972 .

[91]  Baldev Raj,et al.  Frequency spectrum analysis of acoustic emission signal obtained during tensile deformation and fracture of an AISI 316 type stainless steel , 1989 .

[92]  John B. Goodenough,et al.  A Theory of Domain Creation and Coercive Force in Polycrystalline Ferromagnetics , 1954 .

[93]  Gerd Dobmann,et al.  Early detection of creep damage by ultrasonic and electromagnetic techniques , 1991 .

[94]  G. Briggs,et al.  Magneto-acoustic and Barkhausen emission from domain-wall interactions with precipitates in Incoloy 904 , 1987 .

[95]  C. Graham,et al.  Introduction to Magnetic Materials , 1972 .

[96]  M. Saucedo-Muñoz,et al.  DBTT Estimation of Ferritic Low Alloy Steels in Service Plant by means of Small Punch Test , 1991 .

[97]  J. Bulloch,et al.  Toughness losses in low alloy steels at high temperatures : An appraisal of certain factors concerning the small punch test , 1998 .

[98]  R. Mehrabian,et al.  Correlation between ultrasonic and hardness measurements in aged aluminum alloy 2024 , 1985 .

[99]  H. Clemens,et al.  Acoustic Emission during Room Temperature Deformation of a γ-TiAl Based Alloy , 1999 .

[100]  P. Gopalan,et al.  The kinetics of formation and growth of TiC precipitates in Ti-modified stainless steel studied by positron annihilation spectroscopy , 1998 .

[101]  M. N. Bassim,et al.  Acoustic emission mechanisms during high-cycle fatigue , 1981 .

[102]  V. N. Shah,et al.  Nondestructive determination of tensile properties and fracture toughness of cold worked A36 steel , 1998 .

[103]  C. E. Richards,et al.  Acoustic emission monitoring of fatigue crack growth , 1978 .