Influenza: current threat from avian influenza.

Influenza is an infectious respiratory pathogen causing annual outbreaks and infrequent pandemics, resulting in significant morbidity, mortality and burdens on the delivery of health care. The geographical spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 among poultry and wild bird populations is unprecedented. Growing numbers of sporadic avian influenza infections are occurring in humans, increasing the threat of the next influenza pandemic. Vaccines are the principle means of combating influenza, and a number of studies with H5N1 vaccine candidates are underway. Antiviral agents can be used to treat influenza infection and can be taken as chemoprophylaxis during influenza outbreaks. Oseltamivir has been stockpiled as part of influenza pandemic preparedness planning; however, the emergence of drug resistance may limit its clinical use.

[1]  J. Nguyen-Van-Tam,et al.  Excess hospital admissions for pneumonia and influenza in persons [ges ]65 years associated with influenza epidemics in three English health districts: 1987–95 , 2001, Epidemiology and Infection.

[2]  M. Silverman,et al.  Rates of hospitalisation for influenza, respiratory syncytial virus and human metapneumovirus among infants and young children. , 2006, Vaccine.

[3]  P. Ward,et al.  Management of influenza in households: a prospective, randomized comparison of oseltamivir treatment with or without postexposure prophylaxis. , 2004, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[4]  M. Bissell.  Influenza A Virus (H5N1) Infection in Cats Causes Systemic Disease With Potential Novel Routes of Virus Spread Within and Between HostsRimmelzwaan GF, van Riel D, Baars M, et al (Erasmus Med Ctr, Rotterdam, The Netherlands) Am J Pathol 168:176–183, 2006§ , 2007 .

[5]  Y. Guan,et al.  Induction of proinflammatory cytokines in human macrophages by influenza A (H5N1) viruses: a mechanism for the unusual severity of human disease? , 2002, The Lancet.

[6]  M. Kieny,et al.  Development and evaluation of influenza pandemic vaccines , 2006, The Lancet Infectious Diseases.

[7]  David E. Swayne,et al.  Characterization of the Reconstructed 1918 Spanish Influenza Pandemic Virus , 2005, Science.

[8]  J. Peiris,et al.  Re-emergence of fatal human influenza A subtype H5N1 disease , 2004, The Lancet.

[9]  T. Kuiken,et al.  Immunopathology and Infectious Diseases Influenza A Virus ( H 5 N 1 ) Infection in Cats Causes Systemic Disease with Potential Novel Routes of Virus Spread within and between Hosts , 2005 .

[10]  Marion Koopmans,et al.  Avian influenza A virus (H7N7) associated with human conjunctivitis and a fatal case of acute respiratory distress syndrome. , 2004, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[11]  Y. Guan,et al.  Establishment of multiple sublineages of H5N1 influenza virus in Asia: implications for pandemic control. , 2006, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[12]  J. Nauta,et al.  Clinical experience with inactivated, virosomal influenza vaccine. , 2005, Vaccine.

[13]  M. Peiris,et al.  Clinical features and rapid viral diagnosis of human disease associated with avian influenza A H5N1 virus , 1998, The Lancet.

[14]  Xiyan Xu,et al.  Incidence of adamantane resistance among influenza A (H3N2) viruses isolated worldwide from 1994 to 2005: a cause for concern , 2005, The Lancet.

[15]  K. Nicholson.  Impact of influenza and respiratory syncytial virus on mortality in England and Wales from January 1975 to December 1990 , 1996, Epidemiology and Infection.

[16]  H5N1 Moves Into Africa, European Union, Deepening Global Crisis , 2006, Science.

[17]  M. Zambon,et al.  Confronting the avian influenza threat: vaccine development for a potential pandemic , 2004, The Lancet Infectious Diseases.

[18]  A. Sutton,et al.  Effectiveness of neuraminidase inhibitors in treatment and prevention of influenza A and B: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials , 2003, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[19]  Y. Guan,et al.  Charaterization of H9 subtype influenza viruses from the ducks of southern China: a candidate for the next influenza pandemic in humans? , 2003, Journal of Virology.

[20]  D M Fleming,et al.  Population estimates of persons presenting to general practitioners with influenza-like illness, 1987–96: a study of the demography of influenza-like illness in sentinel practice networks in England and Wales, and in The Netherlands , 2000, Epidemiology and Infection.

[21]  P. G. Deriabin,et al.  [Isolation of influenza A/H5N1 virus strains from poultry and wild birds in West Siberia during epizooty (July 2005) and their depositing to the state collection of viruses (August 8, 2005)]. , 2006, Voprosy virusologii.

[22]  N. Cox,et al.  Avian Influenza (H5N1) Viruses Isolated from Humans in Asia in 2004 Exhibit Increased Virulence in Mammals , 2005, Journal of Virology.

[23]  Y. Guan,et al.  Avian Influenza in Hong Kong 1997–2002 , 2003, Avian diseases.

[24]  J. Farrar,et al.  Fatal avian influenza A (H5N1) in a child presenting with diarrhea followed by coma. , 2005, The New England journal of medicine.

[25]  Keiji Fukuda,et al.  Evolution of H5N1 Avian Influenza Viruses in Asia , 2005, Emerging infectious diseases.

[26]  Yong Poovorawan,et al.  Avian Influenza H5N1 in Tigers and Leopards , 2004, Emerging infectious diseases.

[27]  D. Fleming.  The contribution of influenza to combined acute respiratory infections, hospital admissions, and deaths in winter. , 2000, Communicable disease and public health.

[28]  R. Webster,et al.  Lethal H5N1 influenza viruses escape host anti-viral cytokine responses , 2002, Nature Medicine.

[29]  S. Nishimura,et al.  Characterization of a human H9N2 influenza virus isolated in Hong Kong. , 2001, Vaccine.

[30]  Linda M Mundy,et al.  Seroprevalence of anti-H5 antibody among Thai health care workers after exposure to avian influenza (H5N1) in a tertiary care center. , 2005, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[31]  Yoshihiro Kawaoka,et al.  oseltamivir: descriptive study , 2022 .

[32]  Y. Guan,et al.  Reemerging H5N1 Influenza Viruses in Hong Kong in 2002 Are Highly Pathogenic to Ducks , 2004, Journal of Virology.

[33]  M. Decker,et al.  Acute respiratory disease associated with influenza epidemics in Houston, 1981-1983. , 1987, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[34]  Yi Guan,et al.  Oseltamivir resistance during treatment of influenza A (H5N1) infection. , 2005, The New England journal of medicine.

[35]  Maria Zambon,et al.  Serological analysis of serum samples from humans exposed to avian H7 influenza viruses in Italy between 1999 and 2003. , 2005, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[36]  G. Meiklejohn,et al.  Antigenic drift and efficacy of influenza virus vaccines, 1976--1977. , 1978, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[37]  A. Iob,et al.  Evidence of increased clinical protection of an MF59-adjuvant influenza vaccine compared to a non-adjuvant vaccine among elderly residents of long-term care facilities in Italy , 2005, Epidemiology and Infection.

[38]  Jeffery K. Taubenberger,et al.  Characterization of the 1918 influenza virus polymerase genes , 2005, Nature.

[39]  D. Cummings,et al.  Strategies for containing an emerging influenza pandemic in Southeast Asia , 2005, Nature.

[40]  R. Betts,et al.  Protective Efficacy of Combined Live Intranasal and Inactivated Influenza A Virus Vaccines in the Elderly , 1992, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[41]  A. Takada,et al.  Seroepidemiological evidence of avian H4, H5, and H9 influenza A virus transmission to pigs in southeastern China. , 2002, Veterinary microbiology.

[42]  F. Hayden,et al.  The efficacy of live attenuated, cold-adapted, trivalent, intranasal influenzavirus vaccine in children. , 1998, The New England journal of medicine.

[43]  C. Bridges,et al.  Antibody response in individuals infected with avian influenza A (H5N1) viruses and detection of anti-H5 antibody among household and social contacts. , 1999, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[44]  M. Peiris,et al.  Human infection with influenza H9N2 , 1999, The Lancet.

[45]  T. Kuiken,et al.  Avian influenza A virus (H7N7) associated with human conjunctivitis and a fatal case of acute respiratory distress syndrome. , 2004, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[46]  R. Webster,et al.  Virulence may determine the necessary duration and dosage of oseltamivir treatment for highly pathogenic A/Vietnam/1203/04 influenza virus in mice. , 2005, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[47]  R. Davis,et al.  Influenza and the rates of hospitalization for respiratory disease among infants and young children. , 2000, The New England journal of medicine.

[48]  Kwok-Hung Chan,et al.  Influenza-related hospitalizations among children in Hong Kong. , 2002, The New England journal of medicine.

[49]  R. Bugarini,et al.  Cross-reactivity to highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 viruses after vaccination with nonadjuvanted and MF59-adjuvanted influenza A/Duck/Singapore/97 (H5N3) vaccine: a potential priming strategy. , 2005, The Journal of infectious diseases.