Two decades of self‐leadership theory and research: Past developments, present trends, and future possibilities

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to provide a thorough review of self‐leadership literature past and present, including a historical overview of how the concept was created and expanded as well as a detailed look at more recent self‐leadership research trends and directions. The paper also presents a theoretical and conceptual explanation and differentiation of the self‐leadership concept relative to other related motivational, personality, and self‐influence constructs.Design/methodology/approach – Self‐leadership research and related literatures of motivation, personality and self‐influence are discussed and described in order to present the current state of the self‐leadership body of knowledge and to suggest future directions to explore and study.Findings – It is suggested that self‐leadership is a normative model of self‐influence that operates within the framework of more descriptive and deductive theories such as self‐regulation and social cognitive theory.Research limitations/implications – ...

[1]  Koen Dewettinck,et al.  Linking leadership empowerment behavior to employee attitudes and behavioral intentions: testing the mediating role of psychological empowerment , 2011 .

[2]  Alexander K. Koch,et al.  Self-Regulation Through Goal Setting , 2011, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[3]  Sibylle Georgianna.  Self‐leadership: a cross‐cultural perspective , 2007 .

[4]  A. Furnham.  Managerial psychology: state‐of‐the‐art , 2007 .

[5]  Charles J. Palus.  The art and science of leadership , 2007 .

[6]  Jeffery D. Houghton,et al.  Constructive Thought Strategies and Job Satisfaction: A Preliminary Examination , 2007 .

[7]  Jeffrey C. Kohles,et al.  The importance of self‐ and shared leadership in team based knowledge work: A meso‐level model of leadership dynamics , 2006 .

[8]  Jeffery D. Houghton,et al.  Maximizing organizational leadership capacity for the future , 2006 .

[9]  M. Neubert,et al.  An investigation of the generalizability of the Houghton and Neck Revised Self‐Leadership Questionnaire to a Chinese context , 2006 .

[10]  Charles C. Manz,et al.  A cross‐cultural perspective of self‐leadership , 2006 .

[11]  H. P. Sims,et al.  The forgotten follower: a contingency model of leadership and follower self‐leadership , 2006 .

[12]  Jeffery D. Houghton,et al.  Toward a Contingency Model of Leadership and Psychological Empowerment: When Should Self-Leadership Be Encouraged? , 2005 .

[13]  K. Hardy.  Self-Leadership as a Tool in Management Succession Planning: Planned Research Could Prove Valuable in Meeting the Challenges of Succession Planning and Management , 2004 .

[14]  T. W. Bonham,et al.  The relationship between self‐leadership and personality: A comparison of hierarchical factor structures , 2004 .

[15]  Charles C. Manz,et al.  Fit to Lead: The Proven 8-Week Solution for Shaping Up Your Body, Your Mind, and Your Career , 2004 .

[16]  Christopher P. Neck,et al.  How self-leadership affects the goal-setting process. , 2003 .

[17]  Craig V. VanSandt,et al.  Bridging Ethics and Self Leadership: Overcoming Ethical Discrepancies Between Employee and Organizational Standards , 2003 .

[18]  Charles C. Manz,et al.  We think we can, we think we can, we think we can: the impact of thinking patterns and self‐efficacy on work team sustainability , 2003 .

[19]  Christopher P. Neck,et al.  The revised self‐leadership questionnaire: Testing a hierarchical factor structure for self‐leadership , 2002 .

[20]  R. Bhagat.  Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations , 2002 .

[21]  Sharon Bailin.  CREATIVITY IN CONTEXT , 2002 .

[22]  Charles S. Carver,et al.  Affect and the Functional Bases of Behavior: On the Dimensional Structure of Affective Experience , 2001 .

[23]  Mushin Lee,et al.  Is Empowerment Really A New Concept , 2001 .

[24]  G. Hofstede.  Culture′s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations , 2001 .

[25]  H. P. Sims,et al.  The New Superleadership: Leading Others to Lead Themselves , 2001 .

[26]  Christopher P. Neck,et al.  The fit executive: Exercise and diet guidelines for enhancing performance , 2000 .

[27]  Murray R. Barrick,et al.  Team Structure and Performance: Assessing the Mediating Role of Intrateam Process and the Moderating Role of Task Type , 2000 .

[28]  R. J. Hall,et al.  Action-state orientation: construct validity of a revised measure and its relationship to work-related variables. , 2000, The Journal of applied psychology.

[29]  Christopher P. Neck,et al.  The impact of thought self-leadership on individual goal performance: A cognitive perspective , 1999 .

[30]  Rodger W. Griffeth,et al.  Revisiting met expectations as a reason why realistic job previews work , 1999 .

[31]  C. Carver,et al.  On the Self-Regulation of Behavior , 1998 .

[32]  Charles C. Manz,et al.  Self‐leadership and performance outcomes: the mediating influence of self‐efficacy , 1998 .

[33]  L. Palich,et al.  AN EXPLORATORY INVESTIGATION INTO THEORETICAL MECHANISMS UNDERLYING REALISTIC JOB PREVIEWS , 1998 .

[34]  Craig V. VanSandt,et al.  Employee self-leadership: Enhancing the effectiveness of nonprofits , 1998 .

[35]  Roseanne J. Foti,et al.  Evaluating the Interaction Between Self-Leadership and Work Structure in Predicting Job Satisfaction , 1998 .

[36]  S. Williams.  Personality and self-leadership , 1997 .

[37]  Christopher P. Neck,et al.  Thought self‐leadership: a self‐regulatory approach to diversity management , 1997 .

[38]  G. Prussia,et al.  The Self-Leadership Questionnaire: Preliminary Assessment of Construct Validity , 1997 .

[39]  Teresa M. Amabile,et al.  Assessing the Work Environment for Creativity , 1996 .

[40]  Charles C. Manz,et al.  Thought self-leadership: the impact of mental strategies training on employee cognition, behavior, and affect' , 1996 .

[41]  Greg L. Stewart,et al.  THE JOINT EFFECTS OF CONSCIENTIOUSNESS AND SELF‐LEADERSHIP TRAINING ON EMPLOYEE SELF‐DIRECTED BEHAVIOR IN A SERVICE SETTING , 1996 .

[42]  Christopher P. Neck.  THOUGHT SELF‐LEADERSHIP: A SELF‐REGULATORY APPROACH TOWARDS OVERCOMING RESISTANCE TO ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE , 1996 .

[43]  H. P. Sims,et al.  Company of Heroes: Unleashing the Power of Self-Leadership , 1995 .

[44]  Charles C. Manz,et al.  Thought Self-Leadership as a Framework for Enhancing the Performance of Performance Appraisers , 1995 .

[45]  Ina S. Markham,et al.  Self-management and self-leadership reexamined: A levels-of-analysis perspective , 1995 .

[46]  B. H. Layne,et al.  Relationship of self-management to personality types and indices. , 1995, Journal of personality assessment.

[47]  Christopher P. Neck,et al.  Thought Self‐leadership: Finding Spiritual Fulfilment in Organizational Life , 1994 .

[48]  Carolyn Copper,et al.  Does mental practice enhance performance , 1994 .

[49]  E. Higgins,et al.  Ideal versus ought predilections for approach and avoidance: distinct self-regulatory systems. , 1994, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[50]  H. P. Sims,et al.  Business Without Bosses: How Self-Managing Teams Are Building High- Performing Companies , 1993 .

[51]  Charles C. Manz,et al.  Thought self-leadership: The influence of self-talk and mental imagery on performance , 1992 .

[52]  Charles C. Manz,et al.  Employee self-management without formally designated teams: An alternative road to empowerment , 1992 .

[53]  Charles C. Manz.  In Search of Leadership and Leaders? Look at... Self-Leadership... the Heart of Empowerment , 1992 .

[54]  A. Bandura.  Social cognitive theory of self-regulation☆ , 1991 .

[55]  P. Burke.  IDENTITY PROCESSES AND SOCIAL STRESS , 1991 .

[56]  Henry L. Tosi.  A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance , 1991 .

[57]  Charles C. Manz,et al.  Inner leadership: creating productive thought patterns , 1991 .

[58]  H. P. Sims,et al.  SuperLeadership: Beyond the myth of heroic leadership , 1991 .

[59]  Charles C. Manz.  Superleadership: Leading Others to Lead Themselves , 1989 .

[60]  Colette A. Frayne,et al.  Self-management training for increasing job attendance: A follow-up and a replication. , 1988 .

[61]  R. N. Kanungo,et al.  The Empowerment Process: Integrating Theory and Practice , 1988 .

[62]  P. Costa,et al.  Personality in adulthood: a six-year longitudinal study of self-reports and spouse ratings on the NEO Personality Inventory. , 1988, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[63]  E. Deci,et al.  The support of autonomy and the control of behavior. , 1987, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[64]  Gary P. Latham,et al.  Application of social learning theory to employee self-management of attendance , 1987 .

[65]  Marilyn E. Gist,et al.  Self-Efficacy: Implications for Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management , 1987 .

[66]  H. P. Sims,et al.  Leading Workers to Lead Themselves: The External Leadership of Self-Managing Work Teams. , 1987 .

[67]  A. Bandura,et al.  Differential engagement of self-reactive influences in cognitive motivation , 1986, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes.

[68]  Charles C. Manz.  Self-Leadership: Toward an Expanded Theory of Self-Influence Processes in Organizations , 1986 .

[69]  H. P. Sims,et al.  Leading Self-managed Groups: a Conceptual Analysis of a Paradox , 1986 .

[70]  J. Conley,et al.  Longitudinal stability of personality traits: a multitrait-multimethod-multioccasion analysis. , 1985, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[71]  A. Bandura.  Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory , 1985 .

[72]  I. B. Myers.  Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator , 1985 .

[73]  Robin R. Vallacher,et al.  A Theory Of Action Identification , 1985 .

[74]  A. Bandura,et al.  Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems. , 1983 .

[75]  Albert Bandura,et al.  Self-Efficacy Determinants of Anticipated Fears and Calamities , 1983 .

[76]  L. Morris,et al.  Individual Differences in Skilled Performance following Imagery of Bilateral Skill , 1982, Perceptual and motor skills.

[77]  Fred O. Henker,et al.  Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy , 1982 .

[78]  C. Carver,et al.  Attention and Self-Regulation: A Control-Theory Approach to Human Behavior , 1981 .

[79]  Richard R. Reilly,et al.  THE EFFECTS OF REALISTIC PREVIEWS: A STUDY AND DISCUSSION OF THE LITERATURE , 1981 .

[80]  D. Ilgen,et al.  Realistic Job Previews and the Adjustment of New Employees , 1981 .

[81]  G. Hofstede,et al.  Culture′s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values , 1980 .

[82]  H. P. Sims,et al.  Self-Management as a Substitute for Leadership: A Social Learning Theory Perspective , 1980 .

[83]  Ronald W. Hilton.  Integrating Normative and Descriptive Theories of Information Processing , 1980 .

[84]  Fred Luthans,et al.  Behavioral self-management—The missing link in managerial effectiveness , 1979 .

[85]  John M. Jermier,et al.  Substitutes for leadership: Their meaning and measurement , 1978 .

[86]  Charles S. Carver,et al.  Physical aggression as a function of objective self-awareness and attitudes toward punishment , 1975 .

[87]  John P. Wanous,et al.  Effects of a realistic job preview on job acceptance, job attitudes, and job survival , 1973 .

[88]  W. T. Powers.  Behavior, the control of perception , 1973 .

[89]  S. Duval,et al.  Opinion change and performance facilitation as a result of objective self-awareness ☆ , 1971 .

[90]  R. W. White.  Motivation reconsidered: the concept of competence. , 1959, Psychological review.

[91]  W. Ashby,et al.  An introduction to cybernetics. , 1956 .

[92]  H. Simon,et al.  A Behavioral Model of Rational Choice , 1955 .

[93]  Norbert Wiener,et al.  Cybernetics: Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. , 1949 .

[94]  F. H. Adler.  Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. , 1949 .

[95]  Charles C. Manz,et al.  The New Silver Bullets of Leadership:: The Importance of Self- and Shared Leadership in Knowledge Work , 2005 .

[96]  Charles C. Manz,et al.  Self-leadership and superleadership: The heart and art of creating shared leadership in teams , 2003 .

[97]  Anne Nelson.  Mastering Self-Leadership: Empowering Yourself for Personal Excellence , 2000 .

[98]  James D. A. Parker,et al.  The handbook of emotional intelligence : theory, development, assessment, and application at home, school, and in the workplace , 2000 .

[99]  E. Higgins.  Promotion and Prevention: Regulatory Focus as A Motivational Principle , 1998 .

[100]  Francis J. Yammarino,et al.  Leadership: The multiple-level approaches: Classical and new wave. , 1998 .

[101]  L. L. Cummings,et al.  The Organizational Trust Inventory (OTI): Development and validation. , 1996 .

[102]  R. Baumeister,et al.  Self-Regulation Failure: An Overview , 1996 .

[103]  E. Higgins.  Knowledge activation: Accessibility, applicability, and salience. , 1996 .

[104]  Robert N. Clark,et al.  Control system dynamics , 1996 .

[105]  Denis Waitley,et al.  Empires of the Mind: Lessons to Lead and Succeed in a Knowledge-Based World , 1995 .

[106]  Jonathan F. Cox.  THE EFFECTS OF SUPERLEADERSHIP TRAINING ON LEADER BEHAVIOR, SUBORDINATE SELF-LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR, AND SUBORDINATE CITIZENSHIP , 1993 .

[107]  S. M. Arnsten.  Intrinsic motivation. , 1990, The American journal of occupational therapy : official publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association.

[108]  R. Finke,et al.  Principles of mental imagery , 1989 .

[109]  E. Tory Higgins,et al.  Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer? , 1989 .

[110]  D. Kirschenbaum.  Self-regulatory failure: A review with clinical implications. , 1987 .

[111]  Robin R. Vallacher,et al.  What do people think they're doing? Action identification and human behavior. , 1987 .

[112]  Sydney Gregory,et al.  Culture's consequences: international differences in work-related values , 1982 .

[113]  C. Carver.  A cybernetic model of self-attention processes. , 1979 .

[114]  M. Mahoney,et al.  Behavioral self-control , 1974 .

[115]  M. Mahoney,et al.  Self-control: power to the person , 1974 .

[116]  R. Decharms.  Personal causation : the internal affective determinants of behavior , 1968 .

[117]  Viktor Mikhaĭlovich Glushkov,et al.  An Introduction to Cybernetics , 1957, The Mathematical Gazette.

[118]  E.,et al.  Self-Discrepancy : A Theory Relating Self and Affect , 2022 .