Knowledge, methods and the impossibility of error

This work defends method infallibilism, the thesis that propositional knowledge is belief based on a infallible method. The view belongs to the family of modal analyses of knowledge that have been developed in the the last fifty years. We put these analyses in a historical perspective and characterise their form and variants rigorously. Method infallibilism is defended as the simplest modal analysis that satisfies two constraints needed to avoid the Gettier problem and what we call the necessary truth problem. We implement the view in a new formal model for knowledge and a contextualist account of knowledge attributions, though we leave open whether the latter should be endorsed.

[1]  D. Pritchard Resurrecting the Moorean Response to the Sceptic , 2002 .

[2]  Robert Stalnaker,et al.  Common Ground , 2002 .

[3]  Jonathan Uancy The Significance of Philosophical Scepticism , 1985 .

[4]  Stewart M Cohen Knowledge and Context , 1986 .

[5]  Paul K. Moser,et al.  The Oxford handbook of epistemology , 2002 .

[6]  Juan Comesaña A Well-Founded Solution to the Generality Problem , 2006 .

[7]  D. Pritchard Recent work on radical skepticism , 2002 .

[8]  G. Frege On Sense and Reference , 1948 .

[9]  Richard Feldman,et al.  The Generality Problem for Reliabilism , 1998 .

[10]  Duncan Pritchard,et al.  What is this thing called Knowledge? , 2006 .

[11]  F. Récanati,et al.  Oratio obliqua, oratio recta , 2000 .

[12]  A. Ayer,et al.  Language, Truth and Logic. , 1939 .

[13]  G. Shafer The Enterprise of Knowledge: An Essay on Knowledge, Credal Probability, and Chance , 1982 .

[14]  J. Cleve Foundationalism, Epistemic Principles, and the Cartesian Circle , 1979 .

[15]  E. Sosa Human Knowledge, Animal and Reflective , 2001 .

[16]  A. Ayer,et al.  The foundations of empirical knowledge , 1955 .

[17]  E. Sosa How to Defeat Opposition to Moore , 1999 .

[18]  H. Bergson Le possible et le réel , 1934 .

[19]  J. Schaffer Knowing the Answer , 2007 .

[20]  John MacFarlane,et al.  Future contingents and relative truth , 2003 .

[21]  Federico Luzzi Counter-Closure , 2010 .

[22]  D. Pritchard Anti-Luck Virtue Epistemology , 2012 .

[23]  Stewart M Cohen Justification and truth , 1984 .

[24]  J. Pollock Contemporary theories of knowledge , 1986 .

[25]  David L. Conroy Plato's early theory of knowledge. , 1974 .

[26]  T. Merricks Warrant Entails Truth , 1995 .

[27]  Gisela Striker Epicurus on the Truth of Sense Impressions , 1977 .

[28]  W. Alston How to Think about Reliability , 1995 .

[29]  R. Neta Skepticism, Contextualism, and Semantic Self-Knowledge , 2003 .

[30]  J. Schaffer From Contextualism to Contrastivism , 2004 .

[31]  Hugh Miller,et al.  Mind and the World Order , 1931 .

[32]  T. Williamson Probability and Danger , 2009 .

[33]  Justin Buchler The Philosophy of Peirce: Selected Writings , 1941 .

[34]  Mark Kaplan,et al.  It's Not What You Know that Counts , 1985 .

[35]  S. Cohen Contextualist solutions to epistemological problems: Scepticism, Gettier, and the lottery , 1998 .

[36]  James Allen Academic probabilism and Stoic epistemology , 1994, The Classical Quarterly.

[37]  A. Papafragou Epistemic modality and truth conditions , 2006 .

[38]  Vincent F. Hendricks,et al.  Mainstream and formal epistemology , 2005 .

[39]  B. Stroud Understanding Human Knowledge in General , 2019, Knowledge and Skepticism.

[40]  Sergei N. Artëmov,et al.  Introducing Justification into Epistemic Logic , 2005, J. Log. Comput..

[41]  M. Heller The Proper Role for Contextualism in an Anti‐Luck Epistemology , 1999 .

[42]  Ram Neta,et al.  Safety and epistemic luck , 2007, Synthese.

[43]  J. Woodward Making Things Happen: A Theory of Causal Explanation , 2003 .

[44]  Brian F. Chellas Modal Logic: Normal systems of modal logic , 1980 .

[45]  Kyung-Hoi Lee Preface for the First English Edition , 1999 .

[46]  Williamson on Knowledge and Evidence , 2012 .

[47]  R. Neta S Knows That P , 2002 .

[48]  John Hyman,et al.  How Knowledge Works , 1999 .

[49]  S. Wheeler,et al.  Real Conditionals , 2003 .

[50]  Paul Egré,et al.  Reliability, Margin for Error and Self-Knowledge , 2006 .

[51]  Sergei N. Artëmov Logic of Proofs , 1994, Ann. Pure Appl. Log..

[52]  A. J. Ayer The problem of knowledge : 1956 ; and Probability and evidence : 1972 , 2004 .

[53]  Jonathan Vogel,et al.  The New Relevant Alternatives TheorY , 1999 .

[54]  David Owen Locke on judgment , 2007 .

[55]  Robert Stalnaker A Theory of Conditionals , 2019, Knowledge and Conditionals.

[56]  Alvin Plantinga Warrant and proper function , 1993 .

[57]  Keith Lehrer,et al.  Knowledge: Undefeated Justified True Belief , 1969 .

[58]  M. Burnyeat The Material and Sources of Plato's Dream , 1970 .

[59]  R. Pasnau Medieval Social Epistemology: Scientia for Mere Mortals , 2010, Episteme.

[60]  Keith DeRose The Case for Contextualism , 2009 .

[61]  S. Schiffer Contextualist solutions to scepticism , 1996 .

[62]  Jonathan Vogel,et al.  Are there Counterexamples to the Closure Principle , 1990 .

[63]  S. Cohen Contextualism, skepticism, and the structure of reasons , 1999 .

[64]  Sergei N. Artëmov THE LOGIC OF JUSTIFICATION , 2008, The Review of Symbolic Logic.

[65]  R. Chisholm Perceiving: A Philosophical Study , 1958 .

[66]  V. Hacquard Aspects of modality , 2006 .

[67]  E. Sosa Tracking, Competence, and Knowledge , 2005 .

[68]  Gisela Striker Essays on Hellenistic Epistemology and Ethics: The problem of the criterion , 1996 .

[69]  Crispin Wright,et al.  Facts and Certainty , 2004, Studies in the philosophy of logic and knowledge.

[70]  D. Lewis How to Define Theoretical Terms , 1970 .

[71]  I. Kant,et al.  Critique of Pure Reason: Glossary , 1998 .

[72]  Saul A. Kripke,et al.  A Puzzle about Belief , 1979 .

[73]  S. Cohen,et al.  Contextualism Defended: Comments on Richard Feldman's Skeptical Problems, Contextualist Solutions , 2001 .

[74]  E. Sosa Knowledge in perspective: Reliabilism and intellectual virtue , 1991 .

[75]  S. Asch Effects of Group Pressure Upon the Modification and Distortion of Judgments , 1951 .

[76]  Yannis Stephanou The Meaning of ‘Actually’ , 2010 .

[77]  D. Davidson A Coherence Theory of Truth and Knowledge , 2001 .

[78]  Melvin Fitting,et al.  The logic of proofs, semantically , 2005, Ann. Pure Appl. Log..

[79]  Ken Warmbrod An Indexical Theory of Conditionals , 1981, Dialogue.

[80]  M. Heller The simple solution to the problem of generality , 1995 .

[81]  H. Kornblith The Contextualist Evasion of Epistemology , 2000 .

[82]  Duncan Pritchard,et al.  Anti-luck epistemology , 2007, Synthese.

[83]  C. Wright CONTEXTUALISM AND SCEPTICISM: EVEN‐HANDEDNESS, FACTIVITY AND SURREPTITIOUSLY RAISING STANDARDS , 2005 .

[84]  J. Sobel,et al.  Utilitarianisms: Simple and general , 1970 .

[85]  Robert Stalnaker,et al.  Presuppositions , 1973, J. Philos. Log..

[86]  Crispin Wright,et al.  I—Crispin Wright: Warrant for Nothing (and Foundations for Free)? , 2004 .

[87]  E. Sosa,et al.  A Companion to Epistemology , 1992 .

[88]  Ernest Sosa,et al.  Knowledge and Intellectual Virtue , 1985 .

[89]  B. Russell Problems Of Philosophy , 2004, Synthese.

[90]  Juan Comesaña,et al.  Unsafe Knowledge , 2004, Synthese.

[91]  D. Armstrong,et al.  A Materialist Theory of the Mind , 2022 .

[92]  Ernesto Napoli (Direct) reference , 1995, J. Philos. Log..

[93]  Roderick M. Chisholm,et al.  Epistemic Statements and the Ethics of Belief , 1956 .

[94]  Timothy Williamson,et al.  How probable is an infinite sequence of heads , 2007 .

[95]  Klemens Kappel,et al.  A Diagnosis and Resolution to the Generality Problem , 2006 .

[96]  Anthony Douglas Woozley Theory of knowledge, an introduction , 1949 .

[97]  Marie McGinn,et al.  An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology , 1985 .

[98]  Ernest Sosa,et al.  Reflective Knowledge: Apt Belief and Reflective Knowledge , 2009 .

[99]  V. Hacquard,et al.  Epistemics with Attitude , 2008 .

[100]  K. Fine Vagueness, truth and logic , 1975, Synthese.

[101]  E. Sosa Reflective Knowledge in the Best Circles , 1997 .

[102]  James Pryor,et al.  The Skeptic and the Dogmatist , 2000 .

[103]  B. Collier,et al.  Replies , 1984, Neuroscience.

[104]  Charles Wallis Truth-ratios, process, task, and knowledge , 2005, Synthese.

[105]  John Greco,et al.  Knowledge as Credit for True Belief , 2003 .

[106]  Ronald Fagin,et al.  Belief, Awareness, and Limited Reasoning. , 1987, Artif. Intell..

[107]  K. Maier INQUIRY , 2007 .

[108]  Robert Levy,et al.  Epistemology: An Anthology , 2001 .

[109]  E. Doerr,et al.  General Semantics. , 1958, Science.

[110]  Stewart Cohen,et al.  Basic Knowledge and the Problem of Easy Knowledge , 2002 .

[111]  C. S. Jenkins,et al.  Grounding Concepts: An Empirical Basis for Arithmetical Knowledge , 2008 .

[112]  Gail Fine,et al.  Knowledge and belief in Republic: V-VII , 1990 .

[113]  Ken Warmbrod,et al.  Counterfactuals and substitution of equivalent antecedents , 1981, J. Philos. Log..

[114]  J. Stanley,et al.  Knowledge and Action , 2008 .

[115]  Ernest Sosa Skepticism and Contextualism , 2000 .

[116]  Tim Black Contextualism and skepticism about the external world , 2001 .

[117]  Laurence Bonjour,et al.  Externalist Theories of Empirical Knowledge , 1980 .

[118]  H. Rullmann,et al.  Modals as distributive indefinites , 2008 .

[119]  A. Farquharson,et al.  Statement And Inference , 1969 .

[120]  An enquiry concerning human understanding ; A dissertation on the passions ; An enquiry concerning the principles of morals ; and, The natural history of religion , 2002 .

[121]  Alvin Plantinga Warrant and Accidentally True Belief , 1997 .

[122]  Fred I. Dretske,et al.  Seeing and Knowing. , 1969 .

[123]  Timothy Williamson,et al.  Contextualism, Subject‐Sensitive Invariantism and Knowledge of Knowledge , 2005 .

[124]  J. Armstrong Knowledge and Belief , 1953 .

[125]  K. Popper,et al.  Conjectures and Refutations , 1963 .

[126]  J. Hawthorne,et al.  Epistemic Modals in Context , 2005 .

[127]  Alvin I. Goldman,et al.  A Causal Theory of Knowing , 1967 .

[128]  A. Meinong Über die Erfahrungsgrundlagen unseres Wissens , 1906 .

[129]  Krister Segerberg,et al.  An essay in classical modal logic , 1971 .

[130]  P. Unger,et al.  Ignorance: A Case for Scepticism. , 1976 .

[131]  Keith DeRose,et al.  “Bamboozled by Our Own Words”: Semantic Blindness and Some Arguments Against Contextualism* , 2006 .

[132]  E. Sosa,et al.  Proper Functionalism and Virtue Epistemology@@@Warrant: The Current Debate.@@@Warrant and Proper Function. , 1993 .

[133]  E. J. Coffman,et al.  Warrant without truth? , 2008, Synthese.

[134]  Alvin I. Goldman,et al.  What is Justified Belief , 1979 .

[135]  E. Sosa The Raft and the Pyramid , 2020 .

[136]  Jeremy Fantl,et al.  Evidence, Pragmatics, and Justification , 2002 .

[137]  E. Sosa A Virtue Epistemology , 2007 .

[138]  Keith DeRose Contextualism and Knowledge Attributions , 1992 .

[139]  A. Goldman Discrimination and Perceptual Knowledge , 1976 .

[140]  RELIABILISM AND SAFETY , 2006 .

[141]  J. Barnes The Toils of Scepticism , 1990 .

[142]  Stephen Stich,et al.  Reflective equilibrium, analytic epistemology and the problem of cognitive diversity , 1988, Synthese.

[143]  Wesley Buckwalter Knowledge Isn’t Closed on Saturday: A Study in Ordinary Language , 2010 .

[144]  Timothy Williamson,et al.  Comments on Michael Williams' Contextualism, Externalism and Epistemic Standards , 2001 .

[145]  Stewart Cohen Contextualism and Unhappy-Face Solutions: Reply to Schiffer , 2004 .

[146]  木村 和夫 Pragmatics , 1997, Language Teaching.

[147]  A. Goldman Epistemology and Cognition , 1986 .

[148]  Michael Blome-Tillmann The indexicality of ‘knowledge’ , 2008 .

[149]  Myron Louis Gochnauer,et al.  The Analysis of Knowledge , 1941, Nature.

[150]  C. M. Wood,et al.  Being known , 2018, Gender and Digital Culture.

[151]  Julien Dutant,et al.  Inexact knowledge, margin for error and positive introspection , 2007, TARK '07.

[152]  S. Roush Tracking Truth: Knowledge, Evidence, and Science , 2005 .

[153]  Timothy Williamson,et al.  Quantifiers and context-dependence , 1995 .

[154]  John Hawthorne Knowledge and Lotteries , 2004 .

[155]  Michael Williams,et al.  Problems of knowledge : a critical introduction to epistemology , 2001 .

[156]  John L. Pollock,et al.  Defeasible Reasoning , 2020, Synthese Library.

[157]  Bertrand Russell,et al.  Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Value , 1948 .

[158]  Linda Zagzebski,et al.  The Inescapability of Gettier Problems , 2020, Epistemic Values.

[159]  G. C. Stine Skepticism, relevant alternatives, and deductive closure , 1976 .

[160]  R. Neta Contextualism and the Problem of the External World , 2003 .

[161]  Peter Unger,et al.  An Analysis of Factual Knowledge , 1968 .

[162]  R. Putnam,et al.  On Empirical Knowledge , 1969 .

[163]  Steven Luper-foy The epistemic predicament: Knowledge, Nozickian tracking, and scepticism , 1984 .

[164]  Saul A. Kripke,et al.  Naming and Necessity , 1980 .

[165]  S. Rieber Skepticism and Contrastive Explanation , 1998 .

[166]  J. Stanley Knowledge and Practical Interests , 2005 .

[167]  John Greco Worries about Pritchard’s safety , 2006, Synthese.

[168]  Angelika Kratzer,et al.  What ‘must’ and ‘can’ must and can mean , 1977 .

[169]  E. Sosa HOW TO RESOLVE THE PYRRHONIAN PROBLEMATIC: A LESSON FROM DESCARTES , 1997 .

[170]  M. Heller Relevant alternatives and closure , 1999 .

[171]  A. Kratzer The Notional Category of Modality , 2008 .

[173]  Maria Lasonen-Aarnio Single premise deduction and risk , 2008 .

[174]  Timothy Williamson,et al.  Knowledge and Its Limits , 2000 .

[175]  G. E. Moore Proof of an external world , 1939 .

[176]  T. Williamson Why Epistemology Can ’ t be Operationalized , 2006 .

[177]  Aristotle,et al.  Aristotle's Posterior Analytics , 1981 .

[178]  James Somerville,et al.  The Theory of Epistemic Rationality , 1988 .

[179]  J. O. Urmson,et al.  The concise encyclopedia of Western philosophy and philosophers , 1962 .

[180]  V. Hacquard On the event relativity of modal auxiliaries , 2010 .

[181]  Donald Nute,et al.  Counterfactuals , 1975, Notre Dame J. Formal Log..

[182]  Ronald Fagin,et al.  Reasoning about knowledge , 1995 .

[183]  Adam Elga,et al.  Self‐locating belief and the Sleeping Beauty problem , 2000 .

[184]  A. D. Woozley,et al.  Knowledge and perception , 1950 .

[185]  Gilbert Harman Knowledge, Inference, and Explanation , 1968 .

[186]  Some conclusive reasons against ‘conclusive reasons’ , 1973 .

[187]  Colin McGinn,et al.  The Concept of Knowledge , 1984 .

[188]  M. Huemer Logical Properties of Warrant , 2005 .

[189]  John L. Pollock,et al.  Reliability and Justified Belief , 1984, Canadian Journal of Philosophy.

[190]  Stephen Barker,et al.  Conditional Excluded Middle, Conditional Assertion, and 'Only If , 1993 .

[191]  Cleo Condoravdi,et al.  Temporal Interpretation of Modals - Modals for the Present and for the Past , 2001 .

[192]  Anthony S. Gillies,et al.  Counterfactual scorekeeping , 2007 .

[193]  Empiricus Sextus,et al.  Outlines Of Scepticism , 1994 .

[194]  S. Ryan Does Warrant Entail Truth , 1996 .

[195]  Richard Feldman Reliability and Justification , 1985 .

[196]  Michael Clark,et al.  Knowledge and Grounds: A Comment on Mr. Gettier's Paper , 1963 .

[197]  Ernest Sosa,et al.  Beyond Scepticism, to the Best of our Knowledge , 1988 .

[198]  J. Greco Reid's Critique of Berkeley and Hume: What's the Big Idea? , 1995 .

[199]  J. Schaffer Skepticism, Contextualism, and Discrimination* , 2004 .

[200]  Michael Bergmann,et al.  Putting Skeptics in Their Place: The Nature of Skeptical Arguments and Their Role in Philosophical Inquiry , 2001 .

[201]  D. Pritchard A EPISTEMIC LUCK , 2003 .

[202]  T. Merricks More on Warrant’s Entailing Truth , 1997 .

[203]  R. Greene,et al.  Two Notions of Warrant and Plantinga's Solution to the Gettier Problem , 1997 .

[204]  J. Perry Frege on Demonstratives , 1977 .

[205]  Keith DeRose Solving the Skeptical Problem , 1995 .

[206]  E. Sosa How Must Knowledge Be Modally Related to What Is Known , 1999 .

[207]  Keith DeRose,et al.  Single Scoreboard Semantics , 2004 .

[208]  Gail Fine Knowledge and Logos in the Theaetetus , 1979 .

[209]  Matthias Steup,et al.  Knowledge and the state of nature : an essay in conceptual synthesis , 1992 .

[210]  Edmund L. Gettier Is Justified True Belief Knowledge? , 1963, Arguing About Knowledge.

[211]  Michael Blome-Tillmann Contextualism, safety and epistemic relevance , 2009 .

[212]  G. Vlastos Socrates’ Disavowal of Knowledge , 1985 .

[213]  M. Burnyeat Explorations in Ancient and Modern Philosophy: Aristotle on understanding knowledge , 2012 .

[214]  D. Armstrong,et al.  Belief, Truth and Knowledge. , 1974 .

[215]  J. Yolton A Theory of Knowledge , 1924, Nature.

[216]  László Dezsö,et al.  Universal Grammar , 1981, Certainty in Action.

[217]  Crispin Wright Keeping track of Nozick , 1983 .