The effect of leaf-on and leaf-off forest canopy conditions on LiDAR derived estimations of forest structural diversity

Abstract Forest structural diversity metrics describing diversity in tree size and crown shape within forest stands can be used as indicators of biodiversity. These diversity metrics can be generated using airborne laser scanning (LiDAR) data to provide a rapid and cost effective alternative to ground-based inspection. Measures of tree height derived from LiDAR can be significantly affected by the canopy conditions at the time of data collection, in particular whether the canopy is under leaf-on or leaf-off conditions, but there have been no studies of the effects on structural diversity metrics. The aim of this research is to assess whether leaf-on/leaf-off changes in canopy conditions during LiDAR data collection affect the accuracy of calculated forest structural diversity metrics. We undertook a quantitative analysis of LiDAR ground detection and return height, and return height diversity from two airborne laser scanning surveys collected under leaf-on and leaf-off conditions to assess initial dataset differences. LiDAR data were then regressed against field-derived tree size diversity measurements using diversity metrics from each LiDAR dataset in isolation and, where appropriate, a mixture of the two. Models utilising leaf-off LiDAR diversity variables described DBH diversity, crown length diversity and crown width diversity more successfully than leaf-on (leaf-on models resulted in R² values of 0.66, 0.38 and 0.16, respectively, and leaf-off models 0.67, 0.37 and 0.23, respectively). When LiDAR datasets were combined into one model to describe tree height diversity and DBH diversity the models described 75% and 69% of the variance (R² of 0.75 for tree height diversity and 0.69 for DBH diversity). The results suggest that tree height diversity models derived from airborne LiDAR, collected (and where appropriate combined) under any seasonal conditions, can be used to differentiate between simple single and diverse multiple storey forest structure with confidence.

[1]  Y. Lü,et al.  How to integrate remotely sensed data and biodiversity for ecosystem assessments at landscape scale , 2015, Landscape Ecology.

[2]  W. Smith,et al.  Wind Effects on Needles of Timberline Conifers: Seasonal Influence on Mortality , 1986 .

[3]  Benoît St-Onge,et al.  Spatially explicit characterization of boreal forest gap dynamics using multi-temporal lidar data , 2008 .

[4]  Henrik Andrén,et al.  Habitat Composition and Bird Diversity in Managed Boreal Forests , 2003 .

[5]  Juro Čavlović,et al.  Efficiency of ultrasonic Vertex III hypsometer compared to the most commonly used hypsometers in Croatian forestry , 2005 .

[6]  Tomas Brandtberg.  Detection and analysis of individual leaf-off tree crowns in small footprint, high sampling density lidar data from the eastern deciduous forest in North America , 2003 .

[7]  W. Cohen,et al.  Lidar Remote Sensing of the Canopy Structure and Biophysical Properties of Douglas-Fir Western Hemlock Forests , 1999 .

[8]  Douglas K. Bolton,et al.  Measuring forest structure along productivity gradients in the Canadian boreal with small-footprint Lidar , 2013, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment.

[9]  Na Li,et al.  Estimation of Individual Tree Parameters Using Small-Footprint LiDAR with Different Density in a Coniferous Forest , 2012 .

[10]  Terje Gobakken,et al.  Assessing effects of laser point density, ground sampling intensity, and field sample plot size on biophysical stand properties derived from airborne laser scanner data , 2008 .

[11]  K. Bollmann,et al.  The importance of food quantity and quality for reproductive performance in alpine water pipits (Anthus spinoletta) , 1997, Oecologia.

[12]  R. O’Brien,et al.  A Caution Regarding Rules of Thumb for Variance Inflation Factors , 2007 .

[13]  Lee A. Vierling,et al.  The use of airborne lidar to assess avian species diversity, density, and occurrence in a pine/aspen forest , 2008 .

[14]  P. Axelsson.  DEM Generation from Laser Scanner Data Using Adaptive TIN Models , 2000 .

[15]  S. Weisberg.  Applied Linear Regression , 1981 .

[16]  Maria Villikka,et al.  The suitability of leaf-off airborne laser scanning data in an area-based forest inventory of coniferous and deciduous trees , 2012 .

[17]  Jerry F. Franklin,et al.  Forest Stand Structure of the Northern Spotted Owl's Foraging Habitat , 1999, Forest Science.

[18]  Ross Nelson,et al.  Locating and estimating the extent of Delmarva fox squirrel habitat using an airborne LiDAR profiler , 2005 .

[19]  K. O. Niemann,et al.  Simulated impact of sample plot size and co-registration error on the accuracy and uncertainty of LiDAR-derived estimates of forest stand biomass , 2011 .

[20]  Lael Parrott,et al.  Structural complexity in digital images as an ecological indicator for monitoring forest dynamics across scale, space and time , 2009 .

[21]  T. Gobakken,et al.  Light detection and ranging-based measures of mixed hardwood forest structure. , 2010 .

[22]  R. Houghton,et al.  Characterizing 3D vegetation structure from space: Mission requirements , 2011 .

[23]  I. Burke,et al.  Estimating stand structure using discrete-return lidar: an example from low density, fire prone ponderosa pine forests , 2005 .

[24]  K. Itten,et al.  LIDAR-based geometric reconstruction of boreal type forest stands at single tree level for forest and wildland fire management , 2004 .

[25]  Hans R. Zuuring,et al.  A method for quantifying vertical forest structure , 1998 .

[26]  Jinling Song,et al.  Improvement of spatially continuous forest LAI retrieval by integration of discrete airborne LiDAR and remote sensing multi-angle optical data , 2014 .

[27]  S. Popescu,et al.  A voxel-based lidar method for estimating crown base height for deciduous and pine trees , 2008 .

[28]  Kevin Lim,et al.  LiDAR Sampling Density for Forest Resource Inventories in Ontario, Canada , 2012, Remote. Sens..

[29]  M. Whittingham,et al.  The influence of substrate on the functional response of an avian granivore and its implications for farmland bird conservation , 2002, Oecologia.

[30]  Peter Rothery,et al.  Bird species distributions across woodland canopy structure gradients , 2009 .

[31]  Terje Gobakken,et al.  Sampling and Mapping Forest Volume and Biomass Using Airborne LIDARs , 2009 .

[32]  E. D. Mackie,et al.  Timber measurement: field guide. , 2008 .

[33]  Richard K. Broughton,et al.  Mapping the understorey of deciduous woodland from leaf-on and leaf-off airborne LiDAR data: A case study in lowland Britain , 2009 .

[34]  Paul V. Bolstad,et al.  Estimating aboveground biomass and average annual wood biomass increment with airborne leaf-on and leaf-off lidar in great lakes forest types , 2013 .

[35]  W. Wagner,et al.  Accuracy of large-scale canopy heights derived from LiDAR data under operational constraints in a complex alpine environment , 2006 .

[36]  Joanne C. White,et al.  Evaluating the impact of leaf-on and leaf-off airborne laser scanning data on the estimation of forest inventory attributes with the area-based approach , 2015 .

[37]  D. Coomes,et al.  Use of an Airborne Lidar System to Model Plant Species Composition and Diversity of Mediterranean Oak Forests , 2012, Conservation biology : the journal of the Society for Conservation Biology.

[38]  C. Hopkinson.  The influence of flying altitude, beam divergence, and pulse repetition frequency on laser pulse return intensity and canopy frequency distribution , 2007 .

[39]  E. Næsset,et al.  Single Tree Segmentation Using Airborne Laser Scanner Data in a Structurally Heterogeneous Spruce Forest , 2006 .

[40]  Earl D. McCoy,et al.  Habitat Structure: The Evolution and Diversification of a Complex Topic , 1991 .

[41]  Colin L. Mallows,et al.  Augmented partial residuals , 1986 .

[42]  E. Næsset,et al.  Estimating tree heights and number of stems in young forest stands using airborne laser scanner data , 2001 .

[43]  A. Hudak,et al.  Nearest neighbor imputation of species-level, plot-scale forest structure attributes from LiDAR data , 2008 .

[44]  Erik Næsset,et al.  Assessing sensor effects and effects of leaf-off and leaf-on canopy conditions on biophysical stand properties derived from small-footprint airborne laser data , 2005 .

[45]  Heiko Balzter,et al.  Modelling relationships between birds and vegetation structure using airborne LiDAR data: a review with case studies from agricultural and woodland environments , 2005 .

[46]  Vicente S. Monleon,et al.  Challenges to Estimating Tree Height via LiDAR in Closed-Canopy Forests: A Parable from Western Oregon , 2010, Forest Science.

[47]  Erik Næsset,et al.  Effects of different sensors and leaf-on and leaf-off canopy conditions on echo distributions and individual tree properties derived from airborne laser scanning , 2010 .

[48]  H. Andersen,et al.  Tree species differentiation using intensity data derived from leaf-on and leaf-off airborne laser scanner data , 2009 .

[49]  S. Goetz,et al.  Lidar remote sensing variables predict breeding habitat of a Neotropical migrant bird. , 2010, Ecology.

[50]  Ute Beyer,et al.  Remote Sensing And Image Interpretation , 2016 .

[51]  J. P. Kimmins.  Biodiversity and its relationship to ecosystem health and integrity , 1997 .

[52]  EFFECTS OF PLANTATION AND JUVENILE SPACING ON TREE AND STAND DEVELOPMENT , 2022 .

[53]  Uwe Stilla,et al.  Range determination with waveform recording laser systems using a Wiener Filter , 2006 .

[54]  Emmanuel P. Baltsavias,et al.  Airborne laser scanning: basic relations and formulas , 1999 .

[55]  W. Cohen,et al.  Surface lidar remote sensing of basal area and biomass in deciduous forests of eastern Maryland, USA , 1999 .

[56]  T. Breurch,et al.  A simple test for heteroscedasticity and random coefficient variation (econometrica vol 47 , 1979 .

[57]  N. Coops,et al.  Estimating canopy structure of Douglas-fir forest stands from discrete-return LiDAR , 2007, Trees.

[58]  Juha Hyyppä,et al.  Calibration of the optech ALTM-3100 laser scanner intensity data using brightness targets , 2006 .

[59]  W. Walker,et al.  Mapping forest structure for wildlife habitat analysis using waveform lidar: Validation of montane ecosystems , 2005 .

[60]  J. Reitberger,et al.  Analysis of full waveform LIDAR data for the classification of deciduous and coniferous trees , 2008 .

[61]  D. Donoghue,et al.  Modelling tree size diversity from airborne laser scanning using canopy height models with image texture measures , 2013 .

[62]  Tree size distribution and abundance explain structural complexity differentially within stands of even-aged and uneven-aged structure types , 2013, European Journal of Forest Research.

[63]  B. Freedman,et al.  Breeding Bird Communities in a Hardwood Forest Succession in Nova Scotia Canada , 1985 .

[64]  R. McRoberts,et al.  Estimating and mapping forest structural diversity using airborne laser scanning data , 2015 .

[65]  J. Hyyppä,et al.  Automatic detection of harvested trees and determination of forest growth using airborne laser scanning , 2004 .

[66]  S. Goetz,et al.  Laser remote sensing of canopy habitat heterogeneity as a predictor of bird species richness in an eastern temperate forest, USA , 2006 .

[67]  C. Peng,et al.  Relationships between stand growth and structural diversity in spruce-dominated forests in New Brunswick, Canada. , 2009 .

[68]  Erik Næsset,et al.  Effects of different flying altitudes on biophysical stand properties estimated from canopy height and density measured with a small-footprint airborne scanning laser , 2004 .

[69]  N. Pfeifer,et al.  Correction of laser scanning intensity data: Data and model-driven approaches , 2007 .

[70]  P. Watt,et al.  Use of LiDAR to estimate stand characteristics for thinning operations in young Douglas-fir plantations , 2013, New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science.

[71]  M. Flood,et al.  LiDAR remote sensing of forest structure , 2003 .

[72]  G. Henebry,et al.  Remote sensing of vegetation 3-D structure for biodiversity and habitat: Review and implications for lidar and radar spaceborne missions , 2009 .

[73]  Laura Chasmer,et al.  Influence of Vegetation Structure on Lidar-derived Canopy Height and Fractional Cover in Forested Riparian Buffers During Leaf-Off and Leaf-On Conditions , 2013, PloS one.

[74]  Paul Beier,et al.  FOREST STRUCTURE AND PREY ABUNDANCE IN FORAGING AREAS OF NORTHERN GOSHAWKS , 1997 .

[75]  James W. Flewelling,et al.  Evaluation of Tree Height Prediction Models for Stand Inventory , 1998 .

[76]  Steve J. Lee,et al.  Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) , 2013 .

[77]  Laura Chasmer,et al.  Examining the Influence of Changing Laser Pulse Repetition Frequencies on Conifer Forest Canopy Returns , 2006 .

[78]  Norbert Pfeifer,et al.  An improved morphological filter for selecting relief points from a LIDAR point cloud in steep areas with dense vegetation , 2006 .

[79]  T. P. Sullivan,et al.  STAND STRUCTURE AND SMALL MAMMALS IN YOUNG LODGEPOLE PINE FOREST: 10‐YEAR RESULTS AFTER THINNING , 2001 .

[80]  K. Jon Ranson,et al.  Imaging radar for ecosystem studies , 1995 .

[81]  S. Acker,et al.  Development of old-growth structure and timber volume growth trends in maturing Douglas-fir stands , 1998 .

[82]  E. Næsset.  Predicting forest stand characteristics with airborne scanning laser using a practical two-stage procedure and field data , 2002 .

[83]  Åsa Persson,et al.  Detecting and measuring individual trees using an airborne laser scanner , 2002 .

[84]  Malcolm L. Hunter.  Maintaining Biodiversity in Forest Ecosystems: Maintaining Biodiversity in Forest Ecosystems , 1999 .

[85]  Jian-qing Shi,et al.  Study of matching the lidar data set on overlapping flightstrips , 2011, International Symposium on Lidar and Radar Mapping Technologies.

[86]  Kris Vandekerkhove,et al.  Development of a stand-scale forest biodiversity index based on the state forest inventory , 2000 .

[87]  J. Majer,et al.  Eucalypts, arthropods and birds: on the relation between foliar nutrients and species richness , 1996 .

[88]  ANALYSIS OF INTERACTION PATTERNS BETWEEN VEGETATION CANOPIES AND SMALL FOOTPRINT, HIGH-DENSITY, AIRBORNE LIDAR , 2003 .

[89]  Håkan Olsson,et al.  Estimation of 3D vegetation structure from waveform and discrete return airborne laser scanning data , 2012 .

[90]  Lee A. Vierling,et al.  Improving the characterization and mapping of wildlife habitats with lidar data: measurement priorities for the Inland Northwest, USA , 2009 .

[91]  David E. Hibbs,et al.  A new method for modeling the heterogeneity of forest structure. , 2000 .

[92]  Sassan Saatchi,et al.  Estimation of Forest Fuel Load From Radar Remote Sensing , 2007, IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing.

[93]  StataCorp.  Stata base reference manual , 2011 .

[94]  T. Noland,et al.  Classification of tree species based on structural features derived from high density LiDAR data , 2013 .

[95]  Nicholas C. Coops,et al.  Simulation study for finding optimal lidar acquisition parameters for forest height retrieval , 2005 .

[96]  R. Fournier,et al.  Generalizing predictive models of forest inventory attributes using an area-based approach with airborne LiDAR data , 2015 .

[97]  W. Walker,et al.  Mapping forest structure for wildlife habitat analysis using multi-sensor (LiDAR, SAR/InSAR, ETM+, Quickbird) synergy , 2006 .

[98]  Patrick D. Gerard,et al.  Characterizing vertical forest structure using small-footprint airborne LiDAR , 2003 .

[99]  K. Brubaker,et al.  Spatial patterns of tree and shrub biomass in a deciduous forest using leaf-off and leaf-on lidar , 2018, Canadian Journal of Forest Research.

[100]  P Royston,et al.  Which measures of skewness and kurtosis are best? , 1992, Statistics in medicine.

[101]  Juha Hyyppä,et al.  Effects of flight altitude on tree height estimation using airborne laser scanning , 2004 .

[102]  Kristofer D. Johnson,et al.  Estimating species richness and biomass of tropical dry forests using LIDAR during leaf‐on and leaf‐off canopy conditions , 2015 .

[103]  K. Kraus,et al.  FROM SINGLE-PULSE TO FULL-WAVEFORM AIRBORNE LASER SCANNERS: POTENTIAL AND PRACTICAL CHALLENGES , 2004 .

[104]  Marek K. Jakubowski,et al.  Tradeoffs between lidar pulse density and forest measurement accuracy , 2013 .

[105]  G. Vosselman,et al.  Single and two epoch analysis of ICESat full waveform data over forested areas , 2008 .

[106]  K. Puettmann,et al.  Overstory Composition and Stand Structure Influence Herbaceous Plant Diversity in the Mixed Aspen Forest of Northern Minnesota , 2000 .

[107]  Simon Dufour,et al.  Comparison of leaf-on and leaf-off ALS data for mapping riparian tree species , 2017, Remote Sensing.

[108]  V. Radeloff,et al.  Image texture as a remotely sensed measure of vegetation structure , 2012 .

[109]  Nicholas C. Coops,et al.  Assessment of forest structure with airborne LiDAR and the effects of platform altitude , 2006 .

[110]  Shelley A. Hinsley,et al.  Quantifying woodland structure and habitat quality for birds using airborne laser scanning , 2002 .

[111]  Aloysius Wehr,et al.  Airborne laser scanning—an introduction and overview , 1999 .

[112]  Isabel Cañellas,et al.  Evaluating the behaviour of vertical structure indices in Scots pine forests , 2009, Annals of Forest Science.

[113]  E. Næsset,et al.  Assessing effects of positioning errors and sample plot size on biophysical stand properties derived from airborne laser scanner data. , 2009 .

[114]  Florian Zellweger,et al.  From field surveys to LiDAR: Shining a light on how bats respond to forest structure , 2016 .

[115]  Frédéric Bretar,et al.  Full-waveform topographic lidar : State-of-the-art , 2009 .

[116]  Bruce C. Larson,et al.  Forest Stand Dynamics , 1990 .

[117]  S. Franklin,et al.  Remote sensing of forest environments : concepts and case studies , 2003 .

[118]  J. Svensson,et al.  Structure and dynamics of an undisturbed old-growth Norway spruce forest on the rising Bothnian coastline , 2001 .

[119]  A. Cameron,et al.  Regression-based tests for overdispersion in the Poisson model☆ , 1990 .

[120]  Assessing the utility of LiDAR to differentiate among vegetation structural classes , 2012 .

[121]  K. Kraus,et al.  Determination of terrain models in wooded areas with airborne laser scanner data , 1998 .

[122]  Peter Axelsson,et al.  Processing of laser scanner data-algorithms and applications , 1999 .

[123]  D. Donoghue,et al.  Remote sensing of species mixtures in conifer plantations using LiDAR height and intensity data , 2007 .

[124]  P. Watt.  An evaluation of LiDAR and optical satellite data for the measurement of structural attributes in British upland conifer plantation forestry , 2005 .

[125]  G. Houle,et al.  Response of herbaceous plant diversity to reduced structural diversity in maple-dominated (Acer saccharum Marsh.) forests managed for sap extraction , 2006 .