Devulcanisation and reclaiming of tires and rubber by physical and chemical processes: A review

Abstract Since their creation, tires have been constantly improved to fulfil the numerous applications they have been employed in. Although tires consisted of simple rubber bands in the late 20th century, nowadays tires are a highly more complex piece of technology. Due to this more complex structure induced by the presence of other components (like metals and textiles) and a wide variety of polymers used in tire manufacturing, recycling and reclaiming processes are constantly more difficult. Taking into account the global tire demand as well as the amount of rubber involved and their end-of-life fate is mandatory for a sustainable development. The aim of this review is to present and explore physical and chemical processes that are employed in order to recycle tire and reclaim rubber. Well settled techniques such as mechanical, thermo-mechanical, cryo-mechanical grinding and sulfide processes are presented as well as more sustainable technologies such as ionic liquid, eutectic solvents and microwave and catalysis.

[1]  A. Isayev,et al.  Devulcanization of Waste Tire Rubber by Powerful Ultrasound , 1996 .

[2]  Mahdieh Molanorouzi,et al.  Reclaiming waste tire rubber by an irradiation technique , 2016 .

[3]  Richard L. Thompson,et al.  A facile route for rubber breakdown via cross metathesis reactions , 2016 .

[4]  Shinzo Kohjiya,et al.  Role of supercritical carbon dioxide for selective impregnation of decrosslinking reagent into isoprene rubber vulcanizate , 2005 .

[5]  Weidong Cao,et al.  Study on properties of recycled tire rubber modified asphalt mixtures using dry process , 2007 .

[6]  C. G. Moore,et al.  Structural characterization of vulcanizates. Part IV. Use of triphenylphosphine and sodium di‐n‐butyl phosphite to determine the structures of sulfur linkages in natural rubber, cis‐1,4‐polyisoprene, and ethylene–propylene rubber vulcanizate networks , 1964 .

[7]  Iman M. Nikbin,et al.  Sustainable approach for recycling waste tire rubber and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) to produce green concrete with resistance against sulfuric acid attack , 2016 .

[8]  V. Yashin,et al.  Ultrasonic devulcanization of carbon black–filled ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber , 2004 .

[9]  Jacqueline H. Chen,et al.  Novel Ultrasonic Technology for Devulcanization of Waste Rubbers , 1995 .

[10]  Tianju Chen,et al.  Effects of high shear stress on the devulcanization of ground tire rubber in a twin-screw extruder , 2013 .

[11]  Sabu Thomas,et al.  Recent advances in the recycling of rubber waste , 2012 .

[12]  W. Lewandowski,et al.  Efficiency and proportions of waste tyre pyrolysis products depending on the reactor type—A review , 2019, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis.

[13]  P. Maji,et al.  New Route for Devulcanization of Natural Rubber and the Properties of Devulcanized Rubber , 2011 .

[14]  J. A. Lima,et al.  Devulcanization of ground tire rubber: Physical and chemical changes after different microwave exposure times , 2015 .

[15]  Nickolas J. Themelis,et al.  Management of Environmental Quality : An International Journal Use of waste derived fuels in cement industry : a review , 2016 .

[16]  H. Azizi,et al.  Devulcanization of waste tires using a twin‐screw extruder: The effects of processing conditions , 2011 .

[17]  A. Kemp,et al.  Sulfur Linkage in Vulcanized Rubber , 1944 .

[18]  I. Bugaje,et al.  Catalytic upgrading of waste tire pyrolysis oil via supercritical esterification with deep eutectic solvents (green solvents and catalysts) , 2016 .

[19]  M. A. Mull,et al.  Mechano-Chemical Reclamationof Waste Rubber Powder andIts Effect on the performanceof NR and SBR Vulcanizates , 2004 .

[20]  Shinzo Kohjiya,et al.  Devulcanization of carbon black filled natural rubber using supercritical carbon dioxide , 2005 .

[21]  Jin Gao,et al.  Aging of ethylene–propylene–diene monomer (EPDM) in artificial weathering environment , 2007 .

[22]  A. Isayev,et al.  Ultrasonic Devulcanization Reactors for Recycling of GRT: Comparative Study , 2001 .

[23]  Madhusudan Roy,et al.  Mechanochemical devulcanization of natural rubber vulcanizate by dual function disulfide chemicals , 2016 .

[24]  M. D. da Silva,et al.  Thermal analysis of ground tire rubber devulcanized by microwaves , 2007 .

[25]  M. Khalid,et al.  Waste tire rubber in polymer blends: a review on the evolution, properties and future , 2015 .

[26]  P. Thamyongkit,et al.  Thiosalicylic acid as a devulcanizing agent for mechano-chemical devulcanization , 2010 .

[27]  A. Isayev,et al.  Superior Mechanical Properties of Reclaimed SBR with Bimodal Network , 1997 .

[28]  A. Isayev,et al.  Recycling of tire-curing bladder by ultrasonic devulcanization , 2006 .

[29]  M. Buchmeiser,et al.  Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP) in Ionic Liquids: Scope and Limitations , 2006 .

[30]  Michel Gratton,et al.  Recycling of rubber wastes by devulcanization , 2018, Resources, Conservation and Recycling.

[31]  B. Schmaltz,et al.  Devulcanization of styrene butadiene rubber by microwave energy: Effect of the presence of ionic liquid , 2015 .

[32]  Xiao-jun Wang,et al.  Effects of shear stress and subcritical water on devulcanization of styrene–butadiene rubber based ground tire rubber in a twin‐screw extruder , 2013 .

[33]  M. Giovanela,et al.  Characterization of Microwave-Devulcanized Composites of Ground SBR Scraps , 2009 .

[34]  J. Lemaire,et al.  Photo-, thermal and natural ageing of ethylene–propylene–diene monomer (EPDM) rubber used in automotive applications. Influence of carbon black, crosslinking and stabilizing agents , 2000 .

[35]  Ramón Murillo,et al.  Waste tyre pyrolysis – A review , 2013 .

[36]  Rashmi Walvekar,et al.  Parametric study for devulcanization of waste tire rubber utilizing Deep Eutectic Solvent (DES) , 2018 .

[37]  E. S. Gİray,et al.  Supercritical extraction of scrap tire with different solvents and the effect of tire oil on the supercritical extraction of coal , 2004 .

[38]  J. Lacoste,et al.  Characterization of photodegradation of polybutadiene and polyisoprene: chronology of crosslinking and chain-scission , 2005 .

[39]  C. G. Moore,et al.  Structural characterization of vulcanizates. Part II. Use of triphenylphosphine to determine the structures of sulfur linkages in unaccelerated natural rubber–sulfur vulcanizate networks , 1961 .

[40]  Todd M. Lewis,et al.  EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE ON ULTRASONIC DEVULCANIZATION OF TIRE RUBBER IN TWIN-SCREW EXTRUDER , 2014 .

[41]  J. N. Hool,et al.  Depolymerization of Styrene−Butadiene Copolymer in Near-Critical and Supercritical Water , 2001 .

[42]  D. De,et al.  Reclaiming of ground rubber tire by a novel reclaiming agent. I. virgin natural rubber/reclaimed GRT vulcanizates , 2007 .

[43]  C. Hong,et al.  Continuous ultrasonic devulcanization of carbon black-filled NR vulcanizates , 2001 .

[44]  W. Dierkes,et al.  Rubber Recycling: Chemistry, Processing, and Applications , 2012 .

[45]  R. Joseph,et al.  Recycling of NR based cured latex material reclaimed with 2,2'-dibenzamidodiphenyldisulphide in a truck tire tread compound , 2006 .

[46]  C. Chiappe,et al.  Are ionic liquids a proper solution to current environmental challenges , 2014 .

[47]  Yuko Ikeda,et al.  Chemical recycling of sulfur-cured natural rubber using supercritical carbon dioxide , 2004 .

[48]  Liqun Zhang,et al.  Complete devulcanization of sulfur-cured butyl rubber by using supercritical carbon dioxide , 2013 .

[49]  A. Ansarifar,et al.  A novel industrial technique for recycling ethylene-propylene-diene waste rubber , 2015 .

[50]  B. Adhikari,et al.  Reclaiming of rubber by a renewable resource material (RRM). III. evaluation of properties of NR reclaim , 2000 .

[51]  T. Saleh,et al.  Processing methods, characteristics and adsorption behavior of tire derived carbons: a review. , 2014, Advances in colloid and interface science.

[52]  J. Pilard,et al.  Controlled chemical degradation of natural rubber using periodic acid: Application for recycling waste tyre rubber , 2012 .

[53]  A. Richel,et al.  Thermochemical conversion of sugar industry by-products to biofuels , 2018 .

[54]  Avraam Isayev,et al.  Ultrasonic devulcanization of waste rubbers: Experimentation and modeling , 1996 .

[55]  Edgar D. Smith,et al.  Waste tire recycling: environmental benefits and commercial challenges , 2006 .

[56]  Ultrasound devulcanization of SBR : Molecular mobility of gel and sol , 1997 .

[57]  R. Siddique,et al.  Use of recycled plastic in concrete: a review. , 2008, Waste management.

[58]  Venkat Venkatasubramanian,et al.  Sulfur Vulcanization of Natural Rubber for Benzothiazole Accelerated Formulations: From Reaction Mechanisms to a Rational Kinetic Model , 2003 .

[59]  B. Adhikari,et al.  Reclamation and recycling of waste rubber , 2000 .

[60]  B. Saville,et al.  Structural Characterization of Sulfur-Vulcanized Rubber Networks , 1967 .

[61]  C. Saron,et al.  Chemical Modifications in Styrene–Butadiene Rubber after Microwave Devulcanization , 2012 .

[62]  A. Isayev,et al.  Ultrasonic Devulcanization of Precipitated Silica-Filled Silicone Rubber , 2001 .

[63]  A. Isayev,et al.  Continuous ultrasonic devulcanization of unfilled butyl rubber , 2004 .

[64]  Arnaud Nourry,et al.  Controlled Metathetic Depolymerization of Natural Rubber in Ionic Liquids: From Waste Tires to Telechelic Polyisoprene Oligomers , 2017 .

[65]  A. Hejna,et al.  Microwave treatment in waste rubber recycling – recent advances and limitations , 2019, Express Polymer Letters.

[66]  M. Schuhmacher,et al.  Human exposure to environmental pollutants after a tire landfill fire in Spain: Health risks. , 2016, Environment international.

[67]  K. Formela,et al.  FTIR spectroscopic and thermogravimetric characterization of ground tyre rubber devulcanized by microwave treatment , 2016 .

[68]  D. De,et al.  The role of devulcanizing agent for mechanochemical devulcanization of styrene butadiene rubber vulcanizate , 2018 .

[69]  Yanping Xia,et al.  The effect of devulcanization level on mechanical properties of reclaimed rubber by thermal‐mechanical shearing devulcanization , 2013 .

[70]  D. De,et al.  Processing and Material Characteristics of a reclaimed Ground Rubber Tire Reinforced Styrene Butadiene Rubber , 2011 .

[71]  C. Das,et al.  Recycling natural rubber vulcanizates through mechanochemical devulcanization , 2005 .

[72]  Valentin N. Parmon,et al.  Reclamation of waste tyre rubber with nitrous oxide , 2012 .

[73]  M. Buchmeiser,et al.  Grubbs–Hoveyda type catalysts bearing a dicationic N-heterocyclic carbene for biphasic olefin metathesis reactions in ionic liquids , 2015, Beilstein journal of organic chemistry.

[74]  Nickolas J. Themelis,et al.  Resource recovery from used rubber tires , 1999 .

[75]  M. Gratton,et al.  Recycling of waste tire rubber: Microwave devulcanization and incorporation in a thermoset resin. , 2017, Waste management.

[76]  Sandrine Hoppe,et al.  Devulcanization of waste tire rubber by microwaves , 2017 .

[77]  K. Formela,et al.  Efficiency of thermomechanical reclaiming of ground tire rubber conducted in counter-rotating and co-rotating twin screw extruder , 2014 .

[78]  M. Beg,et al.  Mechanical Properties of Industrial Tyre Rubber Compounds , 2010 .

[79]  Davide Lo Presti,et al.  Recycled Tyre Rubber Modified Bitumens for road asphalt mixtures: A literature review☆ , 2013 .

[80]  M. Canel,et al.  Co-extraction of Lignite and Waste Tire Mixtures , 2014 .

[81]  Camila P. Ferraz,et al.  Ionic Grubbs–Hoveyda Complexes for Biphasic Ring‐Opening Metathesis Polymerization in Ionic Liquids: Access to Low Metal Content Polymers , 2014 .

[82]  M. Giovanela,et al.  Use of styrene butadiene rubber industrial waste devulcanized by microwave in rubber composites for automotive application , 2012 .