Polio eradication, cessation of vaccination and re-emergence of disease

The poliovirus eradication programme coordinated by the World Health Organization mainly involves immunization with a live attenuated vaccine. Only six countries — India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Egypt, Nigeria and Niger — still have endemic poliovirus. To tackle recent outbreaks in India and Nigeria, eradication strategies have been refocused. It was hoped that complete eradication of wild-type poliovirus would be achieved by the end of 2003, but during 2004 there have been setbacks to polio immunization in Nigeria, and the number of poliomyelitis cases has increased. It still seems possible that the virus could be eradicated — but should vaccination continue when that goal has been achieved?

[1]  A. Osterhaus,et al.  Inactivated poliovirus vaccine: current production methods and new developments. , 1984, Reviews of infectious diseases.

[2]  L. Schonberger,et al.  Vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis. United States: 1973 through 1984. , 1987, JAMA.

[3]  L. Elbert.  Comparative study of two vaccine strains of type 3 poliovirus (Usol-D bac and Leon 12 a1b). , 1967 .

[4]  R. Parkhouse,et al.  Induction of a protective response in swine vaccinated with DNA encoding foot-and-mouth disease virus empty capsid proteins and the 3D RNA polymerase. , 2001, The Journal of general virology.

[5]  A. Kulesza,et al.  The epidemic of type 3 poliomyelitis in Poland in 1968. , 1970 .

[6]  P. Strebel,et al.  Risk of vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis in Latin America, 1989-91. , 1995, Bulletin of the World Health Organization.

[7]  T. Pöyry,et al.  Viruses in sewage waters during and after a poliomyelitis outbreak and subsequent nationwide oral poliovirus vaccination campaign in Finland , 1988, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[8]  G. Dunn,et al.  Virus excretion and mutation by infants following primary vaccination with live oral poliovaccine from two sources , 1990, Journal of medical virology.

[9]  Javier Martin,et al.  The vaccine origin of the 1968 epidemic of type 3 poliomyelitis in Poland. , 2000, Virology.

[10]  A. Sabin,et al.  History of Sabin attenuated poliovirus oral live vaccine strains , 1973 .

[11]  M. Pallansch,et al.  Outbreak of Poliomyelitis in Hispaniola Associated with Circulating Type 1 Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus , 2002, Science.

[12]  H. Hull,et al.  Disease eradication as a public health strategy: a case study of poliomyelitis eradication. , 2000, Bulletin of the World Health Organization.

[13]  P. Fine,et al.  Polio control after certification: major issues outstanding. , 2004, Bulletin of the World Health Organization.

[14]  Majid Laassri,et al.  Microarray analysis of evolution of RNA viruses: Evidence of circulation of virulent highly divergent vaccine-derived polioviruses , 2003, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[15]  E. Wimmer,et al.  Intergeneric poliovirus recombinants for the treatment of malignant glioma. , 2000, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[16]  H. Hull,et al.  Paralytic poliomyelitis: seasoned strategies, disappearing disease , 1994, The Lancet.

[17]  E. Wimmer,et al.  Will the polio niche remain vacant? , 2001, Developments in biologicals.

[18]  J. Bartlett.  Failure to clear persistent vaccine-derived neurovirulent poliovirus infection in an immunodeficient man , 2004 .

[19]  P. Minor.  Characteristics of poliovirus strains from long-term excretors with primary immunodeficiencies. , 2001, Developments in biologicals.

[20]  P. Minor.  The molecular biology of poliovaccines. , 1992, The Journal of general virology.

[21]  M. Pallansch,et al.  Epidemiology of poliomyelitis in the United States one decade after the last reported case of indigenous wild virus-associated disease. , 1992, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[22]  M. Koopmans,et al.  Genetic analysis of wild-type poliovirus importation into The Netherlands (1979-1995). , 1997, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[23]  P. Minor.  Antigenic structure of picornaviruses. , 1990, Current topics in microbiology and immunology.

[24]  R. Joce,et al.  Paralytic poliomyelitis in England and Wales, 1985-91. , 1992, BMJ.

[25]  P E Fine,et al.  Transmissibility and persistence of oral polio vaccine viruses: implications for the global poliomyelitis eradication initiative. , 1999, American journal of epidemiology.

[26]  A. Heim,et al.  Evolution of poliovirus type I during 5.5 years of prolonged enteral replication in an immunodeficient patient. , 1999, Virology.

[27]  S. Blomqvist,et al.  Prolonged detection of indigenous wild polioviruses in sewage from communities in Egypt. , 2003, American journal of epidemiology.

[28]  Francis Delpeyroux,et al.  Circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses: current state of knowledge. , 2004, Bulletin of the World Health Organization.

[29]  E. Wimmer,et al.  Cellular receptor for poliovirus: Molecular cloning, nucleotide sequence, and expression of a new member of the immunoglobulin superfamily , 1989, Cell.

[30]  Evidence on the safety and efficacy of live poliomyelitis vaccines currently in use, with special reference to type 3 poliovirus. , 1969, Bulletin of the World Health Organization.

[31]  J. Meredith,et al.  Live-attenuated strains of improved genetic stability. , 2001, Developments in biologicals.

[32]  V. Agol,et al.  Retrospective Analysis of a Local Cessation of Vaccination against Poliomyelitis: a Possible Scenario for the Future , 2003, Journal of Virology.

[33]  G. Pepper,et al.  The Current State of Knowledge , 1998 .

[34]  Maccallum Fo.  Hypogammaglobulinaemia in the United Kingdom. VII. The role of humoral antibodies in protection against and recovery from bacterial and virus infections in hypogammaglobulinaemia. , 1971 .

[35]  Javier Martin,et al.  Evolution of the Sabin Strain of Type 3 Poliovirus in an Immunodeficient Patient during the Entire 637-Day Period of Virus Excretion , 2000, Journal of Virology.

[36]  F. Maccallum.  Hypogammaglobulinaemia in the United Kingdom. VII. The role of humoral antibodies in protection against and recovery from bacterial and virus infections in hypogammaglobulinaemia. , 1971, Special report series (Medical Research Council (Great Britain)).

[37]  L. Fiore,et al.  Importation and circulation of poliovirus in Bulgaria in 2001. , 2003, Bulletin of the World Health Organization.

[38]  M. Pallansch,et al.  Circulation of Endemic Type 2 Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus in Egypt from 1983 to 1993 , 2003, Journal of Virology.

[39]  S. Rutella,et al.  Immune Reconstitution following Transplantation of Autologous Peripheral CD34+ Cells , 2001, Acta Haematologica.

[40]  R. Sutter,et al.  Compatible poliomyelitis cases in India during 2000. , 2003, Bulletin of the World Health Organization.

[41]  G. Lloyd,et al.  Poliovirus type 1 in working stocks of typed human rhinoviruses , 2003, The Lancet.

[42]  M. Pallansch,et al.  Search for poliovirus carriers among people with primary immune deficiency diseases in the United States, Mexico, Brazil, and the United Kingdom. , 2004, Bulletin of the World Health Organization.

[43]  N. Nathanson,et al.  The epidemiology of poliomyelitis: enigmas surrounding its appearance, epidemicity, and disappearance. , 1979, American journal of epidemiology.

[44]  R. Sutter,et al.  Sabin monovalent oral polio vaccines: review of past experiences and their potential use after polio eradication. , 2001, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[45]  Tamar Fisher,et al.  Molecular and Antigenic Characterization of a Highly Evolved Derivative of the Type 2 Oral Poliovaccine Strain Isolated from Sewage in Israel , 2000, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[46]  J. Seoh.  VLA-4 Expression and Cell Cycling Status during ex vivo Expansion of Human Cord Blood CD34+ Cells , 2001, Acta Haematologica.

[47]  E. Wimmer,et al.  IRES-controlled protein synthesis and genome replication of poliovirus. , 1994, Archives of virology. Supplementum.