Legal, regulatory, and ethical frameworks for development of standards in artificial intelligence (AI) and autonomous robotic surgery

This paper aims to move the debate forward regarding the potential for artificial intelligence (AI) and autonomous robotic surgery with a particular focus on ethics, regulation and legal aspects (such as civil law, international law, tort law, liability, medical malpractice, privacy and product/device legislation, among other aspects).

[1]  Colin Allen,et al.  Prolegomena to any future artificial moral agent , 2000, J. Exp. Theor. Artif. Intell..

[2]  Gerald Quirchmayr,et al.  Multidisciplinary Research and Practice for Information Systems , 2012, Lecture Notes in Computer Science.

[3]  Bertram F. Malle,et al.  Human-Robot Trust: Just a Button Press Away , 2017, HRI.

[4]  D. Paraskevopoulos,et al.  Comparative study of application accuracy of two frameless neuronavigation systems: experimental error assessment quantifying registration methods and clinically influencing factors , 2011, Neurosurgical Review.

[5]  George S. Ford,et al.  Tort Liability for Software Developers: A Law & Economics Perspective, 27 J. Marshall J. Computer & Info. L. 199 (2009) , 2009 .

[6]  M. Makary,et al.  Medical error—the third leading cause of death in the US , 2016, British Medical Journal.

[7]  Ronald C. Arkin,et al.  International Governance of Autonomous Military Robots , 2010 .

[8]  Christoph Schmittner,et al.  Towards a Framework for Alignment Between Automotive Safety and Security Standards , 2014, SAFECOMP Workshops.

[9]  Thomas Schamm,et al.  Autonomous driving , 2015, it Inf. Technol..

[10]  Steffen Steinert,et al.  The Five Robots—A Taxonomy for Roboethics , 2014, Int. J. Soc. Robotics.

[11]  X. Wang,et al.  Predicting hepatitis B virus–positive metastatic hepatocellular carcinomas using gene expression profiling and supervised machine learning , 2003, Nature Medicine.

[12]  Ara Darzi,et al.  A novel modification of the Turing test for artificial intelligence and robotics in healthcare , 2015, The international journal of medical robotics + computer assisted surgery : MRCAS.

[13]  Andreas Holzinger,et al.  Interactive machine learning for health informatics: when do we need the human-in-the-loop? , 2016, Brain Informatics.

[14]  Luciano Floridi,et al.  Transparent, explainable, and accountable AI for robotics , 2017, Science Robotics.

[15]  M. Makary,et al.  Underreporting of Robotic Surgery Complications , 2015, Journal for healthcare quality : official publication of the National Association for Healthcare Quality.

[16]  F. P. Hubbard,et al.  'Sophisticated Robots': Balancing Liability, Regulation, and Innovation , 2014 .

[17]  Brian Tomlinson,et al.  SARS: experience at Prince of Wales Hospital, Hong Kong , 2003, The Lancet.

[18]  Ugo Pagallo,et al.  Vital, Sophia, and Co. - The Quest for the Legal Personhood of Robots , 2018, Inf..

[19]  M. Scott.  Tort Liability for Vendors of Insecure Software: Has the Time Finally Come? , 2007 .

[20]  Bernd Carsten Stahl,et al.  Ethics of healthcare robotics: Towards responsible research and innovation , 2016, Robotics Auton. Syst..

[21]  James Wei Tatt Toh,et al.  Port positioning and docking for single-stage totally robotic dissection for rectal cancer surgery with the Si and Xi Da Vinci Surgical System , 2017, Journal of Robotic Surgery.

[22]  Guglielmo Tamburrini,et al.  Ethical reflections on health care robotics , 2009 .

[23]  B. Hannaford,et al.  Doc at a Distance , 2006, IEEE Spectrum.

[24]  Axel Krieger,et al.  Smart Tissue Anastomosis Robot (STAR): A Vision-Guided Robotics System for Laparoscopic Suturing , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[25]  Hutan Ashrafian,et al.  Intelligent robots must uphold human rights , 2015, Nature.

[26]  Noel E. Sharkey,et al.  Robotic Surgery: On the Cutting Edge of Ethics , 2013, Computer.

[27]  B. Hannaford,et al.  Surgical robotics : systems, applications and visions , 2011 .

[28]  Ugo Pagallo,et al.  The Laws of Robots - Crimes, Contracts, and Torts , 2013, Law, Governance and Technology Series.

[29]  Roger Collier.  NHS ransomware attack spreads worldwide , 2017, Canadian Medical Association Journal.

[30]  Axel Krieger,et al.  Semi-autonomous electrosurgery for tumor resection using a multi-degree of freedom electrosurgical tool and visual servoing , 2017, 2017 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS).

[31]  G. Veruggio.  The birth of roboethics , 2005 .

[32]  Gunnar Rätsch,et al.  Large Scale Multiple Kernel Learning , 2006, J. Mach. Learn. Res..

[33]  Jacob Rosen,et al.  Trauma Pod: a semi‐automated telerobotic surgical system , 2009, The international journal of medical robotics + computer assisted surgery : MRCAS.

[34]  Sebastian Thrun,et al.  Dermatologist-level classification of skin cancer with deep neural networks , 2017, Nature.

[35]  Ryan S. Decker,et al.  Supervised autonomous robotic soft tissue surgery , 2016, Science Translational Medicine.

[36]  K. M. Deliparaschos,et al.  Evolution of autonomous and semi‐autonomous robotic surgical systems: a review of the literature , 2011, The international journal of medical robotics + computer assisted surgery : MRCAS.

[37]  H Ashrafian,et al.  The evolution of robotic surgery: surgical and anaesthetic aspects , 2017, British journal of anaesthesia.

[38]  Ed Y. Tom,et al.  Classification of usual interstitial pneumonia in patients with interstitial lung disease: assessment of a machine learning approach using high-dimensional transcriptional data. , 2015, The Lancet. Respiratory medicine.

[39]  Andreas Holzinger,et al.  Introduction to MAchine Learning & Knowledge Extraction (MAKE) , 2017, Mach. Learn. Knowl. Extr..

[40]  C. Allen,et al.  Moral Machines: Teaching Robots Right from Wrong , 2008 .

[41]  David Britton.  Autonomous Surgical Robots , 2016 .

[42]  Hutan Ashrafian.  Can Artificial Intelligences Suffer from Mental Illness? A Philosophical Matter to Consider , 2017, Sci. Eng. Ethics.

[43]  Zheng Li,et al.  Robotic Endoscopy , 2018, Visceral Medicine.

[44]  Andreas Holzinger,et al.  Human-Computer Interaction and Knowledge Discovery (HCI-KDD): What Is the Benefit of Bringing Those Two Fields to Work Together? , 2013, CD-ARES.

[45]  Edoardo Datteri,et al.  Predicting the Long-Term Effects of Human-Robot Interaction: A Reflection on Responsibility in Medical Robotics , 2013, Sci. Eng. Ethics.

[46]  Mark Coeckelbergh,et al.  From Killer Machines to Doctrines and Swarms, or Why Ethics of Military Robotics Is not (Necessarily) About Robots , 2011 .

[47]  U. Pagallo.  Algo-Rhythms and the Beat of the Legal Drum , 2017, Philosophy & Technology.

[48]  Patrick Lin,et al.  Robot Ethics: The Ethical and Social Implications of Robotics , 2011 .

[49]  A. Lanfranco,et al.  Robotic Surgery: A Current Perspective , 2004, Annals of surgery.

[50]  Camelia-Mihaela Pintea,et al.  A glass-box interactive machine learning approach for solving NP-hard problems with the human-in-the-loop , 2017, Creative Mathematics and Informatics.

[51]  Katja Kircher,et al.  Tactical Driving Behavior With Different Levels of Automation , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems.

[52]  Katherine D Sheriff.  Defining Autonomy in the Context of Tort Liability: Is Machine Learning Indicative of Robotic Responsibility? , 2015 .

[53]  N. A. Wood,et al.  Semi-autonomous surgical tasks using a miniature in vivo surgical robot , 2009, 2009 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[54]  Andreas Matthias,et al.  The responsibility gap: Ascribing responsibility for the actions of learning automata , 2004, Ethics and Information Technology.

[55]  Daisuke Deguchi,et al.  Automated Anatomical Labeling of Bronchial Branches Extracted from CT Datasets Based on Machine Learning and Combination Optimization and Its Application to Bronchoscope Guidance , 2009, MICCAI.

[56]  L. S. Hung.  The SARS Epidemic in Hong Kong: What Lessons have we Learned? , 2003, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine.

[57]  Guigang Zhang,et al.  Deep Learning , 2016, Int. J. Semantic Comput..