Cognitive functions in drivers with brain injure

The purpose of this thesis was to improve the understanding of what cognitive functions are important for driving performance, investigate the impact of impaired cognitive functions on drivers with brain injury, and study adaptation strategies relevant for driving performance after brain injury. Finally, the predictive value of a neuropsychological test battery was evaluated for driving performance. Main results can be summarized in the following conclusions: (a) Cognitive functions in terms of attentional and dynamic working memory-related functions are relevant for driving performance. (b) Neuropsychological impairments in information processing speed, divided and focused attention, requiring working memory, are associated to limitations in driving performance. In addition, qualitative aspects of driving problems especially impaired anticipatory attention appeared to constrain driving performance. (c) A neuropsychological test battery assessing speed of information processing and attention in terms of working memory predicted driving performance. In addition, cognitive factors are relevant for interpretation of driving problems qualitatively. (d) Driving speed adjustment and anticipatory attention were adaptive strategies for driving after brain injury. Interest in driving, motivation for driving safely, and driving experience appeared also relevant for driving after brain injury. (e) Collaboration between medical, neuropsychological and driving expertise is recommended for a total evaluation of driving performance after brain injury. Anticipatory attention was considered a working memory based attentional system, directing the processing resources flexibly and appropriately between the different information processing components. Thus, anticipatory attention demonstrated qualitatively that working memory is a prominent function in a real driving context.

[1]  Leonard Evans,et al.  Human behavior and traffic safety , 2011 .

[2]  J. Delisa.  Rehabilitation Medicine: Principles and Practice , 1993 .

[3]  S. Tipper,et al.  Selective reaching: evidence for action-centered attention. , 1992, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[4]  P. Rubé,et al.  L’examen Clinique en Psychologie , 1959 .

[5]  A. Luria.  Higher Cortical Functions in Man , 1980, Springer US.

[6]  R. Parasuraman.  The attentive brain , 1998 .

[7]  M. Posner,et al.  The attention system of the human brain. , 1990, Annual review of neuroscience.

[8]  H Summala,et al.  EFFECTS OF DRIVING EXPERIENCE, PERSONALITY, DRIVER'S SKILL AND SAFETY ORIENTATION ON SPEED REGULATION AND ACCIDENTS , 1997 .

[9]  N. Brooks.  Closed head injury : psychological, social, and family consequences , 1984 .

[10]  I. Whishaw,et al.  Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology , 1995 .

[11]  David LaBerge,et al.  Attentional Processing: The Brain's Art of Mindfulness , 1995 .

[12]  J. Duncan.  Cooperating brain systems in selective perception and action. , 1996 .

[13]  M. Posner.  Attention in cognitive neuroscience: An overview. , 1995 .

[14]  June Corwin,et al.  Psychological examination of traumatic encephalopathy , 1993 .

[15]  C Lundberg,et al.  Can a Physician Recognize an Older Driver with Increased Crash Risk Potential? , 1996, Journal of the American Geriatrics Society.

[16]  T. R. Knapp,et al.  Numbers of Observations and Variables in Multivariate Analyses , 1989, Western journal of nursing research.

[17]  T A Ranney,et al.  Models of driving behavior: a review of their evolution. , 1994, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[18]  J. Duncan,et al.  Beyond the search surface: visual search and attentional engagement. , 1992, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[19]  D. Stuss,et al.  Reaction time after head injury: fatigue, divided and focused attention, and consistency of performance. , 1989, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[20]  R. Shiffrin,et al.  Controlled and automatic human information processing: I , 1977 .

[21]  L. Hakamies‐Blomqvist,et al.  Medical Screening of Older Drivers as a Traffic Safety Measure—A Comparative Finnish‐Swedish Evaluation Study , 1996, Journal of the American Geriatrics Society.

[22]  T. Salthouse.  The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. , 1996, Psychological review.

[23]  D. Galin.  SPEEDS ON TWO-LANE RURAL ROADS - A MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS , 1981 .

[24]  Mark T. Keane,et al.  Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook , 1990 .

[25]  John A. Michon,et al.  A critical view of driver behavior models: What do we know , 1985 .

[26]  C Owsley,et al.  Driving after stroke: driving exposure, advice, and evaluations. , 1997, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[27]  M. Posner.  Foundations of cognitive science , 1989 .

[28]  S. Hart,et al.  Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of Empirical and Theoretical Research , 1988 .

[29]  J. Duncan,et al.  Visual search and stimulus similarity. , 1989, Psychological review.

[30]  B. Frier,et al.  Driving after stroke. , 1986, Lancet.

[31]  A. D. Fisk,et al.  Consistent attending versus consistent responding in visual search: Task versus component consistency in automatic processing development , 1984 .

[32]  Andrew Kertesz,et al.  Localization and neuroimaging in neuropsychology , 1994 .

[33]  D. Stuss,et al.  The Frontal Lobes , 1986 .

[34]  Heikki Summala,et al.  RISK CONTROL IS NOT RISK ADJUSTMENT: THE ZERO-RISK THEORY OF DRIVER BEHAVIOUR AND ITS IMPLICATIONS , 1988 .

[35]  D. Gronwall,et al.  Memory and information processing capacity after closed head injury. , 1981, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[36]  Gerald J.S. Wilde,et al.  The Theory of Risk Homeostasis: Implications for Safety and Health , 1982 .

[37]  J A Michon.  Dealing with danger , 1979 .

[38]  M. Posner,et al.  Executive attention: Conflict, target detection, and cognitive control. , 1998 .

[39]  R. Wood.  Neurobehavioural sequelae of traumatic brain injury , 1990 .

[40]  A. Baddeley.  Human Memory: Theory and Practice, Revised Edition , 1990 .

[41]  Håkan Alm.  Driver behaviour models and accident causation , 1989 .

[42]  K. Warner Schaie,et al.  Intellectual development in adulthood , 1990 .

[43]  D Gopher,et al.  Attention control: explorations of the work of an executive controller. , 1996, Brain research. Cognitive brain research.

[44]  J. Stroop.  Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. , 1992 .

[45]  D. French,et al.  Decision-making style, driving style, and self-reported involvement in road traffic accidents. , 1993, Ergonomics.

[46]  John R. Anderson.  Acquisition of cognitive skill. , 1982 .

[47]  Karel Brookhuis,et al.  Simulators and Traffic Psychology , 1998 .

[48]  Denise C. Park,et al.  Handbook of the Psychology of Aging , 1979 .

[49]  A. D. Fisk,et al.  Examination of the Role of “Higher-Order” Consistency in Skill Development , 1988, Human factors.

[50]  Tim Shallice,et al.  Supervisory control of action and thought selection. , 1993 .

[51]  D. Stuss,et al.  Subtle neuropsychological deficits in patients with good recovery after closed head injury. , 1985, Neurosurgery.

[52]  W. Brouwer,et al.  Clinical Neuropsychology of Attention , 1994 .

[53]  D. Gronwall,et al.  The psychological effects of concussion , 1974 .

[54]  Walter Schneider,et al.  Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending and a general theory. , 1977 .

[55]  Talib Rothengatter,et al.  Risk and the absence of pleasure: a motivational approach to modelling road user behaviour , 1988 .

[56]  Wiebo Brouwer,et al.  Fitness to drive after traumatic brain injury , 1997 .

[57]  K Sundet,et al.  Comprehensive driving assessment: neuropsychological testing and on-road evaluation of brain injured patients. , 2000, Scandinavian journal of psychology.

[58]  James A. Mortimer,et al.  The Aging Motor System , 1982 .

[59]  Donald A. Norman,et al.  Attention to Action , 1986 .

[60]  A. Baddeley.  The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? , 2000, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[61]  N. Zasler.  Rehabilitation of the Adult and Child with Traumatic Brain Injury , 1990 .

[62]  Jonathan D. Cohen,et al.  Interference and Facilitation Effects during Selective Attention: An H2 15O PET Study of Stroop Task Performance , 1995, NeuroImage.

[63]  John R. Anderson.  The Architecture of Cognition , 1983 .

[64]  Karl J. Friston,et al.  Investigations of the functional anatomy of attention using the stroop test , 1993, Neuropsychologia.

[65]  T Galski,et al.  Off-road driving evaluations for persons with cerebral injury: a factor analytic study of predriver and simulator testing. , 1997, The American journal of occupational therapy : official publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association.

[66]  K. Howe,et al.  Standards for Qualitative (and Quantitative) Research: A Prolegomenon , 1990 .

[67]  Allen Allport,et al.  Visual attention , 1989 .

[68]  A. Fugl-Meyer,et al.  Traumatic brain injury in northern Sweden. Incidence and prevalence of long-standing impairments and disabilities. , 2020, Scandinavian journal of rehabilitation medicine.

[69]  P. Carpenter,et al.  Individual differences in working memory and reading , 1980 .

[70]  Frederiec Kunna Withaar.  DIVIDED ATTENTION AND DRIVING: THE EFFECTS OF AGING AND BRAIN INJURY , 2000 .

[71]  P. E. Freedman,et al.  Anticipatory behaviour deficits in closed head injury. , 1987, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[72]  R. Näätänen,et al.  Road user behavior and traffic accidents , 1976 .

[73]  M. Sivak.  The Information That Drivers Use: Is it Indeed 90% Visual? , 1996, Perception.

[74]  Nicola Christie.  Assessing driving fitness following brain injury or illness: A research review. , 1996 .

[75]  T. Cook,et al.  Quasi-experimentation: Design & analysis issues for field settings , 1979 .

[76]  W. Brouwer,et al.  Driving competence in older persons. , 1994, Disability and rehabilitation.

[77]  D. Allport,et al.  On the Division of Attention: A Disproof of the Single Channel Hypothesis , 1972, The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology.

[78]  A. Treisman.  VERBAL CUES, LANGUAGE, AND MEANING IN SELECTIVE ATTENTION. , 1964, The American journal of psychology.

[79]  Philip T. Quinlan,et al.  Connectionsim and psychology - a psychological perspective on new connectionist research , 1991 .

[80]  K. Tallman.  Driving performance in mild dementia , 1992 .

[81]  Robert H. Logie,et al.  Components of fluent reading , 1985 .

[82]  L Hakamies-Blomqvist,et al.  Impairments of some cognitive functions are common in crash-involved older drivers. , 1998, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[83]  D. Norman,et al.  New technology and human error , 1989 .

[84]  J. Deutsch,et al.  Attention: Some theoretical considerations. , 1963 .

[85]  Raja Parasuraman,et al.  Varieties of attention , 1984 .

[86]  S Stradling,et al.  Errors and violations on the roads: a real distinction? , 1990, Ergonomics.

[87]  H Alm,et al.  Changes in driver behaviour as a function of handsfree mobile phones--a simulator study. , 1994, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[88]  Liisa Hakamies-Blomqvist,et al.  Äldre bilförare i simulator : en valideringsstudie , 2000 .

[89]  K. Questad,et al.  DRIVING EVALUATION AFTER TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY , 1992, American journal of physical medicine & rehabilitation.

[90]  Liisa Hakamies-Blomqvist,et al.  ELDERLY CAR DRIVERS IN A SIMULATOR: A VALIDATION STUDY , 2000 .

[91]  G. Matthews.  Human Performance: Cognition, Stress and Individual Differences , 2000 .

[92]  D J Oborne,et al.  Human Factors in Transport Research , 1981 .

[93]  R. West,et al.  Stroop color-word interference and electroencephalogram activation: evidence for age-related decline of the anterior attention system. , 1997, Neuropsychology.

[94]  M. Mesulam.  A cortical network for directed attention and unilateral neglect , 1981, Annals of neurology.

[95]  R. Reitan.  Validity of the Trail Making Test as an Indicator of Organic Brain Damage , 1958 .

[96]  P. Ackerman.  Determinants of individual differences during skill acquisition: Cognitive abilities and information processing. , 1988 .

[97]  J. A. Rothengatter,et al.  Traffic and Transport Psychology , 1997 .

[98]  M. Eysenck.  Attention And Arousal, Cognition And Performance , 1982 .

[99]  I. Brown,et al.  Interference between concurrent tasks of driving and telephoning. , 1969, The Journal of applied psychology.

[100]  John A. Groeger,et al.  AUTOMATICITY AND DRIVING: TIME TO CHANGE GEAR? , 1997 .

[101]  Alan D. Baddeley,et al.  Attention: Selection, Awareness, and Control , 1993 .

[102]  L. Bäckman,et al.  RASP: a system for the analysis of memory tasks. , 1995, Scandinavian journal of psychology.

[103]  J. A. Rothengatter,et al.  Fitness to drive a car after recovery from severe head injury. , 1988, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[104]  A. Treisman.  Features and Objects: The Fourteenth Bartlett Memorial Lecture , 1988, The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology. A, Human experimental psychology.

[105]  T. Shallice.  Specific impairments of planning. , 1982, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[106]  Liisa Hakamies-Blomqvist,et al.  RESEARCH ON OLDER DRIVERS: A REVIEW , 1996 .

[107]  N. Korner-Bitensky,et al.  Evaluating Driving Potential in Persons With Stroke: A Survey of Occupational Therapy Practices , 1998 .

[108]  E. Bizzi,et al.  The Cognitive Neurosciences , 1996 .

[109]  D. Broadbent.  Perception and communication , 1958 .

[110]  Lehmann Jf.  Rehabilitation medicine: past, present and future. , 1982, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[111]  Godwin,et al.  Safety Benefits of the 55 MPH Speed Limit , 1985 .

[112]  B. Simms,et al.  Perception and Driving: Theory and Practice , 1985 .

[113]  W H Brouwer,et al.  Acquired brain damage and driving: a review. , 1987, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[114]  T. Shallice.  From Neuropsychology to Mental Structure: Converging Operations: Specific Syndromes and Evidence from Normal Subjects , 1988 .

[115]  James S. Baxter,et al.  Intention to commit driving violations: An application of the theory of planned behavior. , 1992 .

[116]  M. Posner,et al.  Images of mind , 1994 .

[117]  P. Hancock,et al.  Human Mental Workload , 1988 .

[118]  Kurt Johansson,et al.  Older automobile drivers : medical aspects , 1997 .

[119]  J. G. Hollands,et al.  Engineering Psychology and Human Performance , 1984 .

[120]  Risto Näätänen,et al.  A model for the role of motivational factors in drivers' decision-making , 1974 .

[121]  Jens Rasmussen,et al.  Information Processing and Human-Machine Interaction , 1986 .

[122]  Paul Wasielewski,et al.  Speed as a measure of driver risk: Observed speeds versus driver and vehicle characteristics , 1984 .

[123]  Leonard Evans,et al.  Traffic Safety and the Driver , 1991 .

[124]  J. E. Korteling,et al.  Neuropsychological driving fitness tests for brain-damaged subjects. , 1996, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[125]  W. James,et al.  The Principles of Psychology. , 1983 .

[126]  S. Kvale.  Interviews : an introduction to qualitative research interviewing , 1996 .

[127]  Jeffrey P. Toth,et al.  Dissociation of attentional processes in patients with focal frontal and posterior lesions , 1999, Neuropsychologia.

[128]  R West,et al.  Direct observation of driving, self reports of driver behaviour, and accident involvement. , 1993, Ergonomics.

[129]  Jens Rasmussen,et al.  Skills, rules, and knowledge; signals, signs, and symbols, and other distinctions in human performance models , 1983, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics.

[130]  J. Cerella.  Aging and Information-Processing Rate , 1990 .

[131]  E. C. Cherry.  Some Experiments on the Recognition of Speech, with One and with Two Ears , 1953 .

[132]  R. Bonita,et al.  The pattern of management after stroke. , 1987, Age and ageing.