Treatment of Early Parkinson’s Disease

The management of early Parkinson’s disease (PD) involves the treatment of motor symptoms and, increasingly, non-motor symptoms. Given the fast pace of clinical research in PD, clinicians are faced with the challenge of integrating the latest findings into the ongoing care of individual PD patients. Part 1 of this 2-part article reviews motor symptom efficacy data for the newest PD treatment options, as well as for established therapies. Safety and tolerability data are also reviewed. Part 2 of the article reviews key findings relevant to the assessment of potential neuroprotective therapies and the treatment of non-motor symptoms.

[1]  J. Jankovic,et al.  Movement Disorder Society‐sponsored revision of the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (MDS‐UPDRS): Scale presentation and clinimetric testing results , 2008, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[2]  G. Linazasoro.  Conversion From Dopamine Agonists to Cabergoline: An Open-Label Trial in 128 Patients With Advanced Parkinson Disease , 2008, Clinical neuropharmacology.

[3]  A. Siderowf,et al.  Long‐term follow‐up of impulse control disorders in Parkinson's disease , 2008, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[4]  Werner Poewe,et al.  Ten‐year follow‐up of Parkinson's disease patients randomized to initial therapy with ropinirole or levodopa , 2007, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[5]  Nir Giladi,et al.  Rotigotine transdermal patch in early Parkinson's disease: A randomized, double‐blind, controlled study versus placebo and ropinirole , 2007, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[6]  E. Tolosa,et al.  Diagnostic procedures for Parkinson's disease dementia: Recommendations from the movement disorder society task force , 2007, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[7]  E. Tolosa,et al.  Clinical diagnostic criteria for dementia associated with Parkinson's disease , 2007, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[8]  J. Jankovic,et al.  Overnight Switch From Oral Dopaminergic Agonists to Transdermal Rotigotine Patch in Subjects With Parkinson Disease , 2007, Clinical neuropharmacology.

[9]  J. O'Sullivan,et al.  Nonpharmacological treatment, fludrocortisone, and domperidone for orthostatic hypotension in Parkinson's disease , 2007, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[10]  G. Gerhardt,et al.  Unilateral intraputamenal glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor in patients with Parkinson disease: response to 1 year of treatment and 1 year of withdrawal. , 2007, Journal of neurosurgery.

[11]  Qin Li,et al.  Rotigotine treatment partially protects from MPTP toxicity in a progressive macaque model of Parkinson's disease , 2007, Experimental Neurology.

[12]  M. Y. Splinter.  Rotigotine: Transdermal Dopamine Agonist Treatment of Parkinson's Disease and Restless Legs Syndrome , 2007, The Annals of pharmacotherapy.

[13]  J. Jankovic,et al.  Randomized, blind, controlled trial of transdermal rotigotine in early Parkinson disease , 2007, Neurology.

[14]  E. Montgomery.  Practice Parameter: Neuroprotective strategies and alternative therapies for Parkinson disease (an evidence-based review): Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology , 2007, Neurology.

[15]  A. Antonini,et al.  Valvular heart disease and the use of dopamine agonists for Parkinson's disease. , 2007, The New England journal of medicine.

[16]  W. Haverkamp,et al.  Dopamine agonists and the risk of cardiac-valve regurgitation. , 2007, The New England journal of medicine.

[17]  J. Jankovic,et al.  A randomized clinical trial of coenzyme Q10 and GPI-1485 in early Parkinson disease , 2007, Neurology.

[18]  E. Montgomery.  Practice Parameter: Diagnosis and prognosis of new onset Parkinson disease (an evidence-based review): Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology , 2006, Neurology.

[19]  O. Rascol,et al.  Development of dyskinesias in a 5‐year trial of ropinirole and L‐dopa , 2006, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[20]  L. Marsh,et al.  Non-dopaminergic treatment of cognitive impairment and dementia in Parkinson's disease: A review , 2006, Journal of the Neurological Sciences.

[21]  H. Reichmann,et al.  Effects of the dopamine agonist pramipexole on depression, anhedonia and motor functioning in Parkinson's disease , 2006, Journal of the Neurological Sciences.

[22]  S. Bassett,et al.  Clinical features associated with impulse control disorders in Parkinson disease , 2006, Neurology.

[23]  A. Lang,et al.  Prevalence of repetitive and reward-seeking behaviors in Parkinson disease , 2006, Neurology.

[24]  A Bender,et al.  Creatine supplementation in Parkinson disease: A placebo-controlled randomized pilot trial , 2006, Neurology.

[25]  P. Moberg,et al.  Association of dopamine agonist use with impulse control disorders in Parkinson disease. , 2006, Archives of neurology.

[26]  R. Hauser,et al.  Clinical trials aimed at detecting neuroprotection in Parkinson’s disease , 2006, Neurology.

[27]  C. Olanow.  Rationale for considering that propargylamines might be neuroprotective in Parkinson’s disease , 2006, Neurology.

[28]  G. Gerhardt,et al.  Unilateral intraputaminal glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor in patients with Parkinson disease: response to 1 year each of treatment and withdrawal. , 2006, Neurosurgical focus.

[29]  Julien Doyon,et al.  Rapid-eye-movement sleep behaviour disorder and neurodegenerative diseases , 2006, The Lancet Neurology.

[30]  R. Marconi,et al.  Pramipexole versus sertraline in the treatment of depression in Parkinson’s disease , 2006, Journal of Neurology.

[31]  W. Poewe,et al.  Practice Parameter: Evaluation and treatment of depression, psychosis, and dementia in Parkinson disease (an evidence-based review): Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology , 2006, Neurology.

[32]  M. Hallett,et al.  Practice Parameter: Treatment of Parkinson disease with motor fluctuations and dyskinesia (an evidence-based review): Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology , 2006, Neurology.

[33]  W. Weiner,et al.  Practice Parameter: Evaluation and treatment of depression, psychosis, and dementia in Parkinson disease (an evidence-based review): Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology , 2006, Neurology.

[34]  W. Weiner,et al.  Practice Parameter: Diagnosis and prognosis of new onset Parkinson disease (an evidence-based review) , 2006, Neurology.

[35]  Ninds Net-Pd Investigators.  A randomized, double-blind, futility clinical trial of creatine and minocycline in early Parkinson disease. , 2006 .

[36]  W. Oertel,et al.  Pergolide versus levodopa monotherapy in early Parkinson's disease patients: The PELMOPET study , 2006, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[37]  Mark Stacy,et al.  Randomized controlled trial of intraputamenal glial cell line–derived neurotrophic factor infusion in Parkinson disease , 2006, Annals of neurology.

[38]  A. Lang,et al.  Crossroads in GDNF therapy for Parkinson's disease , 2006, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[39]  D. Goldstein,et al.  Orthostatic hypotension as an early finding in Parkinson’s disease , 2006, Clinical autonomic research : official journal of the Clinical Autonomic Research Society.

[40]  K. Kessler,et al.  Determinants of autonomic dysfunction in idiopathic Parkinson’s disease , 2005, Journal of Neurology.

[41]  J. Jankovic,et al.  Modafinil for daytime somnolence in Parkinson’s disease: double blind, placebo controlled parallel trial , 2005, Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry.

[42]  C. Tanner,et al.  Excessive daytime sleepiness and subsequent development of Parkinson disease , 2005, Neurology.

[43]  I. Bone,et al.  Suboptimal medication adherence in Parkinson's disease , 2005, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[44]  B. Schmand,et al.  Cognitive profile of patients with newly diagnosed Parkinson disease , 2005, Neurology.

[45]  I. Katz,et al.  Antidepressant studies in Parkinson's disease: A review and meta‐analysis , 2005, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[46]  I. Arnulf.  Excessive daytime sleepiness in parkinsonism. , 2005, Sleep medicine reviews.

[47]  Werner Poewe,et al.  Evidence‐based medical review update: Pharmacological and surgical treatments of Parkinson's disease: 2001 to 2004 , 2005, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[48]  Günther Deuschl,et al.  Rivastigmine for dementia associated with Parkinson's disease. , 2004, The New England journal of medicine.

[49]  C. Tanner,et al.  Levodopa and the progression of Parkinson's disease. , 2004, The New England journal of medicine.

[50]  D. Grosset,et al.  Switching from ergot to nonergot dopamine agonists in Parkinson's disease: A clinical series and five‐drug dose conversion table , 2004, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[51]  Hansjürgen Bratzke,et al.  Stages in the development of Parkinson’s disease-related pathology , 2004, Cell and Tissue Research.

[52]  Regina Katzenschlager,et al.  Olfaction and Parkinson's syndromes: its role in differential diagnosis , 2004, Current opinion in neurology.

[53]  T. Simuni.  Somnolence and other sleep disorders in Parkinson's disease: the challenge for the practicing neurologist. , 2004, Neurologic clinics.

[54]  John Seibyl,et al.  Pramipexole vs levodopa as initial treatment for Parkinson disease: a 4-year randomized controlled trial. , 2004, Archives of neurology.

[55]  Marcia Polansky,et al.  Drug adherence in Parkinson's disease , 2004, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[56]  Clete Kushida,et al.  Practice parameters for the dopaminergic treatment of restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movement disorder. , 2004, Sleep.

[57]  J. Montplaisir,et al.  The effects of pramipexole in REM sleep behavior disorder , 2003, Neurology.

[58]  A. Bharucha,et al.  Acetylcholinesterase inhibition: a novel approach in the treatment of neurogenic orthostatic hypotension , 2003, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[59]  Anke Richter,et al.  The impact of reducing dose frequency on health outcomes. , 2003, Clinical therapeutics.

[60]  B. Boeve,et al.  Melatonin for treatment of REM sleep behavior disorder in neurologic disorders: results in 14 patients. , 2003, Sleep medicine.

[61]  Claude Nahmias,et al.  Slower progression of Parkinson's disease with ropinirole versus levodopa: The REAL‐PET study , 2003, Annals of neurology.

[62]  R. Albin,et al.  Neuroprotective agents for clinical trials in Parkinson’s disease , 2003, Neurology.

[63]  M. Emre.  Dementia associated with Parkinson's disease , 2003, The Lancet Neurology.

[64]  D. Brooks,et al.  Direct brain infusion of glial cell line–derived neurotrophic factor in Parkinson disease , 2003, Nature Medicine.

[65]  C. Adler,et al.  Randomized trial of modafinil for treating subjective daytime sleepiness in patients with Parkinson's disease , 2003, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[66]  J. Nutt,et al.  A controlled trial of rasagiline in early Parkinson disease: the TEMPO Study. , 2002, Archives of neurology.

[67]  Joel S Perlmutter,et al.  Effects of coenzyme Q10 in early Parkinson disease: evidence of slowing of the functional decline. , 2002, Archives of neurology.

[68]  Madhuri Behari,et al.  Sleep disorders in Parkinson's disease , 2002, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[69]  C. N. Homann,et al.  Sleep attacks in patients taking dopamine agonists: review , 2002, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[70]  D. Aarsland,et al.  Development of daytime somnolence over time in Parkinson’s disease , 2002, Neurology.

[71]  J. Penney,et al.  Impact of sustained deprenyl (selegiline) in levodopa‐treated Parkinson's disease: A randomized placebo‐controlled extension of the deprenyl and tocopherol antioxidative therapy of parkinsonism trial , 2002, Annals of neurology.

[72]  Antonio Addis,et al.  Relationship between daily dose frequency and adherence to antihypertensive pharmacotherapy: evidence from a meta-analysis. , 2002, Clinical therapeutics.

[73]  M. Okun,et al.  Depression associated with Parkinson’s disease: Clinical features and treatment , 2002, Neurology.

[74]  A. Lang,et al.  Excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden-onset sleep in Parkinson disease: a survey by the Canadian Movement Disorders Group. , 2002, JAMA.

[75]  S. Frucht,et al.  An algorithm (decision tree) for the management of Parkinson's disease (2001): Treatment guidelines , 2002, Neurology.

[76]  A. E. Lang,et al.  Practice parameter: Initiation of treatment for Parkinson’s disease: An evidence-based review , 2002, Neurology.

[77]  S. Giménez-Roldán,et al.  Switching from Bromocriptine to Ropinirole in Patients with Advanced Parkinson's Disease: Open Label Pilot Responses to Three Different Dose-Ratios , 2001, Clinical neuropharmacology.

[78]  E. Wolters,et al.  Intrinsic and extrinsic psychosis in Parkinson's disease , 2001, Journal of Neurology.

[79]  J. Jankovic,et al.  Switching from pergolide to pramipexole in patients with Parkinson's disease , 2001, Journal of Neural Transmission.

[80]  J. Cramer,et al.  A systematic review of the associations between dose regimens and medication compliance. , 2001, Clinical therapeutics.

[81]  J. Jankovic,et al.  Are Dopamine Receptor Agonists Neuroprotective in Parkinson’s Disease? , 2001, Drugs & aging.

[82]  S. Houle,et al.  Influence of l-dopa and pramipexole on striatal dopamine transporter in early PD , 2001, Neurology.

[83]  P. O'Suilleabhain,et al.  Treatment of drug-induced psychosis with quetiapine and clozapine in Parkinson's disease , 2000, Neurology.

[84]  John Seibyl,et al.  Pramipexole vs levodopa as initial treatment for Parkinson disease: A randomized controlled trial. Parkinson Study Group. , 2000, JAMA.

[85]  J. Ringman,et al.  Treatment of REM sleep behavior disorder with donepezil: A report of three cases , 2000, Neurology.

[86]  D. Brooks,et al.  A five-year study of the incidence of dyskinesia in patients with early Parkinson's disease who were treated with ropinirole or levodopa. , 2000, The New England journal of medicine.

[87]  Joseph Friedman,et al.  Clozapine replacement by quetiapine for the treatment of drug‐induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease , 2000, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[88]  J. Friedman,et al.  Atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of drug‐induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease , 2000, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[89]  S. Targum,et al.  Efficacy of quetiapine in Parkinson's patients with psychosis. , 2000, Journal of clinical psychopharmacology.

[90]  J. Mellers,et al.  Psychosis in Parkinson’s disease: ‘between a rock and a hard place’ , 2000 .

[91]  Brown Tm,et al.  Clozapine in drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease , 1999, The Lancet.

[92]  T. Simuni,et al.  Does Levodopa Accelerate Parkinson’s Disease? , 1999, Drugs & aging.

[93]  S Fahn,et al.  Falling asleep at the wheel: Motor vehicle mishaps in persons taking pramipexole and ropinirole , 1999, Neurology.

[94]  J. Friedman,et al.  Quetiapine for the treatment of drug‐induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease , 1999 .

[95]  G. Stebbins,et al.  Switching dopamine agonists in advanced Parkinson’s disease , 1999, Neurology.

[96]  C. Adler,et al.  Ropinirole for the treatment of early Parkinson disease: a 12-month experience. Ropinirole Study Group. , 1998, Archives of neurology.

[97]  Y. Agid,et al.  Chronic levodopa is not toxic for remaining dopamine neurons, but instead promotes their recovery, in rats with moderate nigrostriatal lesions , 1998, Annals of neurology.

[98]  O. Rascol,et al.  A placebo-controlled evaluation of ropinirole, a novel D2 agonist, as sole dopaminergic therapy in Parkinson's disease. , 1998, Clinical neuropharmacology.

[99]  J Urquhart,et al.  Contending paradigms for the interpretation of data on patient compliance with therapeutic drug regimens. , 1998, Statistics in medicine.

[100]  Roger Kurlan,et al.  A survey of antidepressant drug use in Parkinson's disease , 1997, Neurology.

[101]  J. Friedman,et al.  Efficacy of pramipexole, a novel dopamine agonist, as monotherapy in mild to moderate Parkinson's disease , 1997, Neurology.

[102]  C. Adler,et al.  Ropinirole for the treatment of early Parkinson's disease , 1997, Neurology.

[103]  N H Neff,et al.  Regulation of tyrosine hydroxylase and aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase by dopaminergic drugs. , 1997, European journal of pharmacology.

[104]  Mark W. Mahowald,et al.  Delayed emergence of a parkinsonian disorder in 38% of 29 older men initially diagnosed with idiopathic rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder , 1996, Neurology.

[105]  J. Hubble,et al.  The effect of deprenyl and levodopa on the progression of Parkinson's disease , 1995, Annals of neurology.

[106]  J. Hubble,et al.  Pramipexole in patients with early Parkinson's disease. , 1995, Clinical neuropharmacology.

[107]  M. Toru,et al.  Modulation of [3H]mazindol binding sites in rat striatum by dopaminergic agents. , 1993, European journal of pharmacology.

[108]  M. Brin,et al.  Effects of tocopherol and deprenyl on the progression of disability in early Parkinson's disease. , 1993, The New England journal of medicine.

[109]  S. Fahn,et al.  The oxidant stress hypothesis in Parkinson's disease: Evidence supporting it , 1992, Annals of neurology.

[110]  J. Cummings,et al.  Depression and Parkinson's disease: a review. , 1992, The American journal of psychiatry.

[111]  B. Scott,et al.  Ropinirole 24-hour prolonged release and ropinirole immediate release in early Parkinson's disease: a randomized, double-blind, non-inferiority crossover study. , 2008, Current medical research and opinion.

[112]  M. Lemke.  [Antidepressant effects of dopamine agonists. Experimental and clinical findings]. , 2007, Der Nervenarzt.

[113]  M. Emre.  Dementia Associated with Parkinsons Disease , 2007 .

[114]  S. Thobois.  Proposed dose equivalence for rapid switch between dopamine receptor agonists in Parkinson's disease: a review of the literature. , 2006, Clinical therapeutics.

[115]  Abu A Qutubuddin,et al.  Pain in Parkinson's disease: pathology to treatment, medication to deep brain stimulation. , 2005, NeuroRehabilitation.

[116]  G. Linazasoro.  Conversion from dopamine agonists to pramipexole. An open-label trial in 227 patients with advanced Parkinson's disease. , 2004, Journal of neurology.

[117]  A. Siderowf,et al.  A controlled, randomized, delayed-start study of rasagiline in early Parkinson disease. , 2004, Archives of neurology.

[118]  M. Etminan,et al.  Comparison of the Risk of Adverse Events with Pramipexole and Ropinirole in Patients with Parkinson’s Disease , 2003, Drug safety.

[119]  A controlled trial of rotigotine monotherapy in early Parkinson's disease. , 2003, Archives of neurology.

[120]  Fabrizio Stocchi,et al.  Factors impacting on quality of life in Parkinson's disease: Results from an international survey , 2002, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[121]  Dopamine transporter brain imaging to assess the effects of pramipexole vs levodopa on Parkinson disease progression. , 2002, JAMA.

[122]  I. Shoulson.  Where do we stand on neuroprotection? Where do we go from here? , 1998, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[123]  Anthony E. Lang,et al.  Effect of deprenyl on the progression of disability in early Parkinson's disease. , 1989, The New England journal of medicine.