Exploring intimate partner violence among adult women and men in Sweden

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a worldwide public health concern. The aim of this thesis is to assess psychometric properties of the Violence Against Women Instrument (VAWI) and to study self-reported exposure, associated and contextual factors of IPV among adult women and men residing in Sweden. A further aim is to explore and interpret men’s experiences of IPV in light of current theoretical perspectives in the field. Methods: Data was gathered by cross-sectional postal survey and consisted of 573 women and 399 men aged 18-65 years. Internal reliability and validity of the VAWI were assessed by means of Cronbach’s alpha and principal components analysis (PCA). Simple and multivariable logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with exposure to IPV. In addition, twenty semi-structured interviews with men subjected to IPV were conducted and analysed using a hermeneutic spiral. Results: The Cronbach alpha coefficient for the total violence scale was 0.88 for both women and men. For women, the PCA yielded a two-component solution and a three-component solution largely mirrored the VAWI's conceptual model. For men, the conceptual model of the VAWI was only partially reflected and other constructs were found. Similar past-year exposure rates to IPV were found among women and men, whereas the rates for earlier-in-life exposure were higher among women. Factors associated with IPV for both women and men were poor to moderate social support, having grown up in a home with violence and being single, divorced or widowed. There was a tendency for women and men to report different social consequences of IPV. While the interviewed men’s female partners had established considerable and severe emotional control over them, they generally did not achieve physical or sexual control of the men. Gender as a pervasive structure affected both the expressions and experiences of IPV. Conclusions: Results from this thesis suggest that both women and men are exposed to IPV in Sweden, but in partly different ways. Hence, future public health research should be guided by gender theoretical frameworks that consider the contextual and structural differences of IPV between women and men. The results can also be used to develop a gender sensitive health care policy that contextualizes IPV by considering coercion, fear and impact of women’s and men’s experiences.

[1]  J. M. Leone,et al.  Women’s Decisions to Not Seek Formal Help for Partner Violence , 2014, Journal of interpersonal violence.

[2]  Venus Tsui.  Male victims of intimate partner abuse: use and helpfulness of services. , 2014, Social work.

[3]  K. Swahnberg,et al.  Associations and Experiences Observed for Family and Nonfamily Forms of Violent Behavior in Different Relational Contexts Among Swedish Men and Women , 2014, Violence and Victims.

[4]  Lindsey Blumenstein,et al.  Testing Johnson’s Typology: Is There Gender Symmetry in Intimate Terrorism? , 2014, Violence and Victims.

[5]  Michael P. Johnson,et al.  Intimate Terrorism and Situational Couple Violence in General Surveys , 2014, Violence against women.

[6]  S. Hamby.  Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Research , 2014, Trauma, violence & abuse.

[7]  V. Baćak,et al.  The Increasing Predictive Validity of Self-Rated Health , 2014, PloS one.

[8]  J. Jasinski,et al.  Mental Health Effects of Intimate Terrorism and Situational Couple Violence Among Black and Hispanic Women , 2013, Violence against women.

[9]  N. Brossoie,et al.  Intimate Partner Violence in Late Life , 2013, Violence against women.

[10]  Jacquelyn C. Campbell,et al.  The global prevalence of intimate partner homicide: a systematic review , 2013, The Lancet.

[11]  C. Taft,et al.  Psychometric properties of the WHO Violence Against Women instrument in a female population-based sample in Sweden: a cross-sectional survey , 2013, BMJ Open.

[12]  M. Petzold,et al.  Intimate Partner Violence and Incident Depressive Symptoms and Suicide Attempts: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies , 2013, PLoS medicine.

[13]  M. Hester.  Who does what to whom? Gender and domestic violence perpetrators in English police records , 2013 .

[14]  U. Reijnders,et al.  Male Victims of Domestic Violence , 2013, Journal of Family Violence.

[15]  L. Howard,et al.  Experiences of Domestic Violence and Mental Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis , 2012, PloS one.

[16]  Sean C. McCarthy,et al.  Men Who Sustain Female-to-Male Partner Violence: Factors Associated With Where They Seek Help and How They Rate Those Resources , 2012, Violence and Victims.

[17]  K. Swahnberg,et al.  Violence , 2012, Scandinavian journal of public health.

[18]  G. Krantz,et al.  Men’s and women’s exposure and perpetration of partner violence: an epidemiological study from Sweden , 2012, BMC Public Health.

[19]  M. Hester.  Portrayal of Women as Intimate Partner Domestic Violence Perpetrators , 2012, Violence against women.

[20]  J. Sareen,et al.  Victimization and Perpetration of Intimate Partner Violence and Substance Use Disorders in a Nationally Representative Sample , 2012, The Journal of nervous and mental disease.

[21]  P. Reeves,et al.  Dating Norms and Dating Violence Among Ninth Graders in Northeast Georgia , 2012, Journal of interpersonal violence.

[22]  J. Ackerman.  The Relevance of Relationship Satisfaction and Continuation to the Gender Symmetry Debate , 2012, Journal of interpersonal violence.

[23]  L. Heise,et al.  What Puts Women at Risk of Violence From Their Husbands? Findings From a Large, Nationally Representative Survey in Turkey , 2012, Journal of interpersonal violence.

[24]  J. Shortt,et al.  A Systematic Review of Risk Factors for Intimate Partner Violence , 2012, Partner Abuse.

[25]  J. Hearn,et al.  Men’s experiences of emotional, physical, and sexual abuse and abuse in health care: A cross-sectional study of a Swedish random male population sample , 2012, Scandinavian journal of public health.

[26]  T. Krasnoselskikh,et al.  Partner violence perpetration and victimization and HIV risk behaviors in St. Petersburg, Russia. , 2012, Journal of traumatic stress.

[27]  A. Yalew,et al.  Intimate partner violence against women in western Ethiopia: prevalence, patterns, and associated factors , 2011, BMC public health.

[28]  M. Sommers,et al.  Consequences of intimate partner violence on child witnesses: a systematic review of the literature. , 2011, Journal of child and adolescent psychiatric nursing : official publication of the Association of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nurses, Inc.

[29]  Clifton R. Emery.  Disorder or deviant order? Re-theorizing domestic violence in terms of order, power and legitimacy: A typology , 2011 .

[30]  A. Grams,et al.  Men as victims of intimate partner violence. , 2011, Journal of forensic and legal medicine.

[31]  M. Allen.  Is there gender symmetry in intimate partner violence , 2011 .

[32]  K. Wijewardena,et al.  Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in the Capital Province of Sri Lanka , 2011, Violence against women.

[33]  Adam M. Messinger.  Invisible Victims: Same-Sex IPV in the National Violence Against Women Survey , 2011, Journal of interpersonal violence.

[34]  M. Hindin,et al.  Psychosocial Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence for Women and Men in Canada , 2011, Journal of interpersonal violence.

[35]  Viveka Enander.  Violent Women? The Challenge of Women's Violence in Intimate Heterosexual Relationships to Feminist Analyses of Partner Violence , 2011 .

[36]  K. Swahnberg.  NorVold Abuse Questionnaire for men (m-NorAQ): validation of new measures of emotional, physical, and sexual abuse and abuse in health care in male patients. , 2011, Gender medicine.

[37]  I. Mogren,et al.  Intimate partner violence in urban Pakistan: prevalence, frequency, and risk factors , 2011, International journal of women's health.

[38]  K. Chan.  Gender differences in self-reports of intimate partner violence: A review , 2011 .

[39]  V. Escribà-Agüir,et al.  The effect of intimate partner violence and other forms of violence against women on health. , 2011, Journal of public health.

[40]  K. Devries,et al.  What factors are associated with recent intimate partner violence? findings from the WHO multi-country study on women's health and domestic violence , 2011, BMC public health.

[41]  Carol Vanzile-Tamsen,et al.  Advancing the Study of Violence Against Women Using Mixed Methods: Integrating Qualitative Methods Into a Quantitative Research Program , 2011, Violence against women.

[42]  A. Figueredo,et al.  Sex Differences in Intimate Partner Violence and the Use of Coercive Control as a Motivational Factor for Intimate Partner Violence , 2010, Journal of interpersonal violence.

[43]  M. Latorre,et al.  Validity of the WHO VAW study instrument for estimating gender-based violence against women. , 2010, Revista de saude publica.

[44]  M. Cheung,et al.  Help‐seeking among male victims of partner abuse: men's hard times , 2010 .

[45]  E. Douglas,et al.  Intimate Terrorism by Women Towards Men: Does it Exist? , 2010, Journal of aggression, conflict and peace research.

[46]  K. Weiss.  Too Ashamed to Report: Deconstructing the Shame of Sexual Victimization , 2010 .

[47]  M. Hester,et al.  Feminist epistemology and the politics of method: surveying same sex domestic violence , 2010 .

[48]  K. O’leary,et al.  Gender Symmetry or Asymmetry in Intimate Partner Victimization? Not an Either/Or Answer , 2010, Partner Abuse.

[49]  J. Langhinrichsen-Rohling.  Controversies Involving Gender and Intimate Partner Violence in the United States , 2010 .

[50]  E. Stark.  Do Violent Acts Equal Abuse? Resolving the Gender Parity/Asymmetry Dilemma , 2010 .

[51]  E. Stark.  Rethinking Coercive Control , 2009, Violence against women.

[52]  J. Blosnich,et al.  Comparisons of intimate partner violence among partners in same-sex and opposite-sex relationships in the United States. , 2009, American journal of public health.

[53]  Kristin L. Anderson.  Gendering Coercive Control , 2009, Violence against women.

[54]  M. Hindin,et al.  Exploring gender differences in the patterns of intimate partner violence in Canada: a latent class approach , 2009, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health.

[55]  M. Stein,et al.  Mental Health Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence in Marital Relationships in a Nationally Representative Sample of Males and Females , 2009, Journal of interpersonal violence.

[56]  G. Krantz,et al.  Childhood experiences of interparental violence as a risk factor for intimate partner violence: a population-based study from northern Vietnam , 2009, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health.

[57]  Jacquelyn C Campbell,et al.  Intimate partner violence screening tools: a systematic review. , 2009, American journal of preventive medicine.

[58]  D. Busby,et al.  Male Victims: The Nature and Meaning of Sexual Coercion , 2009 .

[59]  M. Hester,et al.  Researching Domestic Violence in Same-Sex Relationships—A Feminist Epistemological Approach to Survey Development , 2009, Journal of lesbian studies.

[60]  J. Hearn,et al.  Prevalence of Perceived Experiences of Emotional, Physical, Sexual, and Health Care Abuse in a Swedish Male Patient Sample , 2009, Violence and Victims.

[61]  P. Ostergren,et al.  Intimate partner violence against women, health effects and health care seeking in rural Vietnam. , 2009, European journal of public health.

[62]  Jacquelyn Allen-Collinson,et al.  A Marked Man: Female-Perpetrated Intimate Partner Abuse , 2009 .

[63]  C. Kam,et al.  1700 Victims of intimate partner violence: characteristics and clinical outcomes. , 2008, Hong Kong medical journal = Xianggang yi xue za zhi.

[64]  Kristin L. Anderson,et al.  Is Partner Violence Worse in the Context of Control , 2008 .

[65]  Charlotte Watts,et al.  WHO Multi-country Study on Women's Health and Domestic Violence against Women: Initial Results on Prevalence, Health Outcomes and Women's Responses , 2008 .

[66]  J. B. Kelly,et al.  DIFFERENTIATION AMONG TYPES OF INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE: RESEARCH UPDATE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERVENTIONS , 2008 .

[67]  G. Ryan,et al.  Chronic disease and health risk behaviors associated with intimate partner violence-18 U.S. states/territories, 2005. , 2008, Annals of epidemiology.

[68]  S. Swan,et al.  A Review of Research on Women’s Use of Violence With Male Intimate Partners , 2008, Violence and Victims.

[69]  L. Schraiber,et al.  Violência sexual por parceiro íntimo entre homens e mulheres no Brasil urbano, 2005 , 2008 .

[70]  P. Åstedt‐Kurki,et al.  Intimate partner violence as experienced by men. , 2008, Journal of psychiatric and mental health nursing.

[71]  C. Watts,et al.  Intimate partner violence and women's physical and mental health in the WHO multi-country study on women's health and domestic violence: an observational study , 2008, The Lancet.

[72]  R. Caetano,et al.  Intimate Partner Violence Victim and Perpetrator Characteristics Among Couples in the United States , 2008, Journal of Family Violence.

[73]  B. Schei,et al.  Partner violence and health: Results from the first national study on violence against women in Norway , 2008, Scandinavian journal of public health.

[74]  E. Tajima,et al.  Reconceptualizing and Operationalizing Context in Survey Research on Intimate Partner Violence , 2008, Journal of interpersonal violence.

[75]  Å. Slettebø,et al.  How do we close the hermeneutic circle? A Gadamerian approach to justification in interpretation in qualitative studies. , 2008, Nursing inquiry.

[76]  Murray A. Straus.  Dominance and symmetry in partner violence by male and female university students in 32 nations , 2008 .

[77]  G. Ryan,et al.  Prevalence and risk factors of intimate partner violence in eighteen U.S. states/territories, 2005. , 2008, American journal of preventive medicine.

[78]  S. Bjørkly,et al.  An Interactional Perspective of Intimate Partner Violence: An In-depth Semi-structured Interview of a Representative Sample of Help-seeking Women , 2008, Journal of Family Violence.

[79]  M. Hester,et al.  Researching Same Sex Domestic Violence: Constructing a Survey Methodology , 2008 .

[80]  N. Sarkar.  The impact of intimate partner violence on women's reproductive health and pregnancy outcome , 2008, Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology : the journal of the Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology.

[81]  I. Hyman,et al.  Who Is Most at Risk for Intimate Partner Violence? , 2007, Journal of interpersonal violence.

[82]  C. Cohan,et al.  Victim Help Seeking: Differences Between Intimate Terrorism and Situational Couple Violence , 2007 .

[83]  P. Romito,et al.  Does violence affect one gender more than the other? The mental health impact of violence among male and female university students. , 2007, Social science & medicine.

[84]  P. Schluter,et al.  Maternal Childhood Parental Abuse History and Current Intimate Partner Violence: Data From the Pacific Islands Families Study , 2007, Violence and Victims.

[85]  Z. Winstok.  Toward an interactional perspective on intimate partner violence , 2007 .

[86]  M. Hester,et al.  Research update: comparing domestic abuse in same sex and heterosexual relationships , 2007 .

[87]  Kristin L. Anderson.  Who Gets Out? , 2007 .

[88]  C. Lennartsson,et al.  Getting by with a little help: The importance of various types of social support for health problems , 2007, Scandinavian journal of public health.

[89]  D. Hines,et al.  Characteristics of Callers to the Domestic Abuse Helpline for Men , 2007, Journal of Family Violence.

[90]  M. Marmot,et al.  Self-Rated Health and Mortality: Short- and Long-Term Associations in the Whitehall II Study , 2007, Psychosomatic medicine.

[91]  Sari Andajani-Sutjahjo,et al.  The Social Dynamics of the Interview: Age, Class, and Gender , 2006, Qualitative health research.

[92]  T. Mills,et al.  Male victims of partner violence: prevalence and accuracy of screening tools. , 2006, The Journal of emergency medicine.

[93]  S. Swan,et al.  The Development of a Theory of Women’s Use of Violence in Intimate Relationships , 2006, Violence against women.

[94]  Michael P. Johnson.  Conflict and Control , 2006, Violence against women.

[95]  C. Watts,et al.  Prevalence of intimate partner violence: findings from the WHO multi-country study on women's health and domestic violence , 2006, The Lancet.

[96]  Laureen Snider,et al.  Husband Abuse: Equality with a Vengeance? , 2006 .

[97]  Jacquelyn C. Campbell,et al.  The Distribution of and Factors Associated With Intimate Terrorism and Situational Couple Violence Among a Population-Based Sample of Urban Women in the United States , 2006, Journal of interpersonal violence.

[98]  T. Vos,et al.  Measuring the impact of intimate partner violence on the health of women in Victoria, Australia. , 2006, Bulletin of the World Health Organization.

[99]  S. Walby.  Improving the statistics on violence against women , 2006 .

[100]  K. Bartholomew,et al.  Intimate Violence in Male Same-Sex Relationships , 2006, Journal of Family Violence.

[101]  Pere J. Ferrando,et al.  FACTOR: A computer program to fit the exploratory factor analysis model , 2006, Behavior research methods.

[102]  B. Tabachnick,et al.  Using Multivariate Statistics (5th Edition) , 2006 .

[103]  Joseph H Michalski.  Explaining Intimate Partner Violence: The Sociological Limitations of Victimization Studies , 2005 .

[104]  B. Fisher,et al.  The prevalence and incidence of intimate partner violence in older women in primary care practices , 2005, Journal of General Internal Medicine.

[105]  A. Bowling.  Mode of questionnaire administration can have serious effects on data quality. , 2005, Journal of public health.

[106]  Maureen C McHugh,et al.  A Postmodern Approach to Women's Use of Violence: Developing Multiple and Complex Conceptualizations , 2005 .

[107]  P. Corso,et al.  Average Cost per Person Victimized by an Intimate Partner of the Opposite Gender: A Comparison of Men and Women , 2005, Violence and Victims.

[108]  Stacey L. Williams,et al.  Patterns of Violent Relationships, Psychological Distress, and Marital Satisfaction in a National Sample of Men and Women , 2005 .

[109]  M. Paterson,et al.  Using Hermeneutics as a Qualitative Research Approach in Professional Practice , 2005 .

[110]  S. Hamby.  Measuring Gender Differences in Partner Violence: Implications from Research on Other Forms of Violent and Socially Undesirable Behavior , 2005 .

[111]  M. Dutton,et al.  Coercion in Intimate Partner Violence: Toward a New Conceptualization , 2005 .

[112]  L. Brush.  Philosophical and Political Issues in Research on Women’s Violence and Aggression , 2005 .

[113]  Kristin L. Anderson.  Theorizing Gender in Intimate Partner Violence Research , 2005 .

[114]  Maureen C McHugh.  Understanding Gender and Intimate Partner Abuse , 2005 .

[115]  B. Krahé,et al.  Understanding Gender and Intimate Partner Violence from an International Perspective , 2005 .

[116]  Barbara Pini,et al.  Interviewing men , 2005 .

[117]  April L. Few,et al.  A Qualitative Investigation of Johnson’s Typology , 2005, Violence and Victims.

[118]  E. Waltermaurer,et al.  Measuring Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) , 2005, Journal of interpersonal violence.

[119]  Joan C. McClennen.  Domestic Violence Between Same-Gender Partners , 2005, Journal of interpersonal violence.

[120]  M. Hester.  Future Trends and Developments , 2004 .

[121]  E. Robinson,et al.  Violence against women in New Zealand: prevalence and health consequences. , 2004, The New Zealand medical journal.

[122]  Nancy Farwell.  War Rape: New Conceptualizations and Responses , 2004 .

[123]  P. Bjerregaard,et al.  Can we compare violence data across countries? , 2004, International journal of circumpolar health.

[124]  J. Obergfell-Fuchs,et al.  The Extent of Family Violence in Europe , 2004 .

[125]  R. Dobash,et al.  WOMEN'S VIOLENCE TO MEN IN INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS , 2004 .

[126]  R. Jewkes,et al.  Gender-based violence, relationship power, and risk of HIV infection in women attending antenatal clinics in South Africa , 2004, The Lancet.

[127]  C. Cohan,et al.  Consequences of Male Partner Violence for Low‐Income Minority Women , 2004 .

[128]  L. Jaycox,et al.  Dating Violence among Adolescents , 2004, Trauma, violence & abuse.

[129]  F. Estrada,et al.  Exposure to Threatening and Violent Behaviour Among Single Mothers: The Significance of Lifestyle, Neighbourhood and Welfare Situation , 2004 .

[130]  B. Wijma,et al.  The NorVold Abuse Questionnaire (NorAQ): validation of new measures of emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, and abuse in the health care system among women. , 2003, European journal of public health.

[131]  J. Archer,et al.  Intimate Terrorism and Common Couple Violence , 2003, Journal of interpersonal violence.

[132]  T. Steingrimsdottir,et al.  Emotional, physical, and sexual abuse in patients visiting gynaecology clinics: a Nordic cross-sectional study , 2003, The Lancet.

[133]  J. Belknap,et al.  He Hits, She Hits , 2003 .

[134]  J. Archer,et al.  Physical Aggression and Control in Heterosexual Relationships: The Effect of Sampling , 2003, Violence and Victims.

[135]  N. Lackey,et al.  Making Sense of Factor Analysis: The Use of Factor Analysis for Instrument Development in Health Care Research , 2003 .

[136]  S. Dube,et al.  Violent Childhood Experiences and the Risk of Intimate Partner Violence in Adults , 2003 .

[137]  C. Guse,et al.  Men's and Women's Use of Intimate Partner Violence in Clinical Samples , 2002, Violence and victims.

[138]  Ileana Arias,et al.  Physical and mental health effects of intimate partner violence for men and women. , 2002, American journal of preventive medicine.

[139]  S. Dasgupta.  A Framework for Understanding Women's Use of Nonlethal Violence in Intimate Heterosexual Relationships , 2002 .

[140]  Kristin L. Anderson.  Perpetrator or Victim? Relationships Between Intimate Partner Violence and Well-Being , 2002 .

[141]  E. Krug,et al.  The world report on violence and health , 2002, The Lancet.

[142]  J. Archer.  Sex differences in physically aggressive acts between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review , 2002 .

[143]  Jacquelyn C. Campbell,et al.  Health consequences of intimate partner violence , 2002, The Lancet.

[144]  Charlotte Watts,et al.  Violence against women: global scope and magnitude , 2002, The Lancet.

[145]  G. Krantz,et al.  Violence against women: a global public health issue! , 2002, Journal of epidemiology and community health.

[146]  S. Swan,et al.  A Typology of Women's Use of Violence in Intimate Relationships , 2002 .

[147]  Todd Migliaccio.  Abused Husbands , 2002 .

[148]  C. Hagemann-White.  European Research on the Prevalence of Violence Against Women , 2001 .

[149]  D. Umberson,et al.  GENDERING VIOLENCE , 2001 .

[150]  Todd Migliaccio.  Marginalizing the Battered Male , 2001 .

[151]  M. P. Johnson,et al.  Research on Domestic Violence in the 1990s: Making Distinctions , 2000 .

[152]  P. Östergren,et al.  The association between violence victimisation and common symptoms in Swedish women , 2000, Journal of epidemiology and community health.

[153]  J. Langhinrichsen-Rohling,et al.  The Clinical Utility of Batterer Typologies , 2000, Journal of Family Violence.

[154]  K. Alexanderson,et al.  The relation of adult experience of domestic harassment, violence, and sexual abuse to health and sickness absence , 2000 .

[155]  M. Hird.  An empirical study of adolescent dating aggression in the U.K. , 2000, Journal of adolescence.

[156]  P. Tjaden,et al.  Prevalence and Consequences of Male-to-female and Female-to-male Intimate Partner Violence as Measured by the National Violence Against Women Survey , 2000 .

[157]  K. O’leary,et al.  Factor structure and convergent validity of the Conflict Tactics Scale in high school students. , 1999 .

[158]  Jeff Hearn,et al.  The Violences of Men: How Men Talk About and How Agencies Respond to Men's Violence to Women , 1998 .

[159]  Deborah Lee.  Interviewing men: Vulnerabilities and dilemmas , 1997 .

[160]  D. Altman,et al.  Statistics notes: Cronbach's alpha , 1997 .

[161]  I. Heyman.  Tolkning och reflektion , 1996 .

[162]  J. Nazroo.  Uncovering Gender Differences in the Use of Marital Violence: The Effect of Methodology , 1995 .

[163]  M. P. Johnson,et al.  Patriarchal terrorism and common couple violence: two forms of violence against women , 1995 .

[164]  Helen Dryler.  Flyttningar, socialt stöd och psykisk ohälsa , 1993, Sociologisk Forskning.

[165]  D. Streiner,et al.  Health Measurement Scales: A practical guide to thier development and use , 1989 .

[166]  Murray A. Straus,et al.  Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales. , 1979 .

[167]  R. Palmer.  Hermeneutics: Interpretation Theory in Schleiermacher, Dilthey, Heidegger and Gadamer , 1969 .

[168]  Tommy D. Andersson,et al.  Våld och hälsa : En befolkningsundersökning om kvinnors och mäns våldsutsatthet samt kopplingen till hälsa , 2014 .

[169]  A. Frankland,et al.  Coercive Control in Same-Sex Intimate Partner Violence , 2013, Journal of Family Violence.

[170]  Lucas Gottzén,et al.  Killars våld mot tjejer i nära relationer , 2013 .

[171]  Kathleen J. Ferraro.  Gender Matters in Intimate Partner Violence , 2013 .

[172]  Bertha A Hidalgo,et al.  Multivariate or multivariable regression? , 2013, American journal of public health.

[173]  S. Swan,et al.  Gender differences in intimate partner violence outcomes. , 2012 .

[174]  Rebecca Davenport,et al.  Exploring the service and support needs of male, lesbian, gay, bi-sexual and transgendered and black and other minority ethnic victims of domestic and sexual violence.: Report prepared for Home Office SRG/06/017 , 2012 .

[175]  Subbiah,et al.  Intimate Partner Violence in Papua New Guinea , 2012 .

[176]  Lucas Gottzén.  Att (inte) bli en kvinnomisshandlare , 2012 .

[177]  G. Heimer,et al.  Våld i samkönade relationer: en kunskaps- och forskningsöversikt , 2009 .

[178]  Anne Hammarström,et al.  Folkhälsofrågor ur ett genusperspektiv. : Arbetsmarknad, maskuliniteter, medikalisering och könsrelaterat våld. , 2008 .

[179]  E. Stark.  Coercive Control: How Men Entrap Women in Personal Life , 2007 .

[180]  Minna Piispa.  Naisiin kohdistunut väkivalta 2005 , 2006 .

[181]  M. Farley.  Prostitution, Trafficking, and Cultural Amnesia: What We Must Not Know in Order To Keep the Business of Sexual Exploitation Running Smoothly , 2006 .

[182]  Jacquelyn C. Campbell,et al.  Prevalence of and risk factors for intimate partner violence in China. , 2005, American journal of public health.

[183]  Sylvia Walby,et al.  Domestic violence, sexual assault and stalking: Findings from the British Crime Survey , 2004 .

[184]  A. Kramer,et al.  Prevalence of intimate partner violence and health implications for women using emergency departments and primary care clinics. , 2004, Women's health issues : official publication of the Jacobs Institute of Women's Health.

[185]  S. Farrall,et al.  Male Victims of Domestic Violence , 2003 .

[186]  L. Eva,et al.  Slagen Dam. Mäns våld mot kvinnor i jämställda Sverige -- en omfångsundersökning , 2001 .

[187]  C. Garcia-Moreno.  Putting women first : ethical and safety recommendations for research on domestic violence against women , 2001 .

[188]  L. Cronbach,et al.  Construct validity in psychological tests. , 1955, Psychological bulletin.

[189]  R. Jewkes.  For Personal Use. Only Reproduce with Permission from the Lancet Publishing Group. Social and Demographic Characteristics Intimate Partner Violence: Causes and Prevention Violence against Women Iii , 2022 .