Preventive Interventions Addressing Underage Drinking: State of the Evidence and Steps Toward Public Health Impact

The epidemiological features of underage drinking and evidence of its social, health, and economic consequences suggest compelling reasons for the development and dissemination of effective preventive interventions. To clarify the nature and extent of the current evidence base on preventive interventions addressing underage drinking, a review of the literature was conducted through extensive searches of the research literature on outcome evaluations, existing reviews of this body of outcome research (N = 25), and summary reports of evidence on specific interventions. More than 400 interventions were identified and screened, and the evidence for 127 was reviewed. Criteria for the evaluation of evidence were established for intervention studies with alcohol-specific outcome measures for 3 developmental periods (<10, 10–15, and 16 to ≥20 years of age). Ultimately, 12 interventions met criteria for “most promising” evidence and 29 met criteria for “mixed or emerging” evidence. Conducting this review revealed clear advances in the number of evidence-based interventions available and the quality of outcome research; however, much work remains to achieve greater public health impact through evidence-based interventions. This work should consider (1) the great need for intervention research related to understudied developmental phases, intervention domains (eg, family, school, community, and media), and populations (eg, early tweens, late teens, young adults not attending college, and nonmajority populations); (2) the critical importance of addressing key issues in research design and methods (eg, limited longitudinal studies, replication studies, and dissemination research); and (3) the need for improved consistency in application of evidence and reporting standards. Finally, we recommend the application of emerging consumer-oriented and community-participatory models for intervention development and research, designed to increase the likelihood of “real-world” public health impact through improved translation of intervention science into practice.

[1]  R. Spoth Translating Family-Focused Prevention Science Into Effective Practice , 2008, Current directions in psychological science.

[2]  M. Larimer,et al.  Identification, prevention, and treatment revisited: individual-focused college drinking prevention strategies 1999-2006. , 2007, Addictive behaviors.

[3]  Catherine J. Lillehoj,et al.  PROSPER STUDY OF EVIDENCE-BASED INTERVENTION IMPLEMENTATION QUALITY BY COMMUNITY-UNIVERSITY PARTNERSHIPS. , 2007, Journal of community psychology.

[4]  N. Heinrichs,et al.  Die langfristige Wirksamkeit eines Elterntrainings zur universellen Prävention kindlicher Verhaltensstörungen , 2006 .

[5]  P. Martin Alcohol Problems in Adolescents and Young Adults: Epidemiology, Neurobiology, Prevention, and Treatment , 2006 .

[6]  C. Perry,et al.  Teasing Apart a Multiple Component Approach to Adolescent Alcohol Prevention: What Worked in Project Northland? , 2006, Prevention Science.

[7]  M. Guyll,et al.  Universality of Effects: An Examination of the Comparability of Long-Term Family Intervention Effects on Substance Use Across Risk-Related Subgroups , 2006, Prevention Science.

[8]  J. Nissen Treating and preventing adolescent mental health disorders. What we know and what we don't know , 2006 .

[9]  M. Greenberg,et al.  The Mediational Role of Neurocognition in the Behavioral Outcomes of a Social-Emotional Prevention Program in Elementary School Students: Effects of the PATHS Curriculum , 2006, Prevention Science.

[10]  Thomas W. Valente,et al.  Translation in the Health Professions , 2006, Evaluation & the health professions.

[11]  R. Spoth,et al.  Randomized study of combined universal family and school preventive interventions: patterns of long-term effects on initiation, regular use, and weekly drunkenness. , 2005, Psychology of addictive behaviors : journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors.

[12]  M. Galanter Alcohol Problems in Adolescents and Young Adults: Epidemiology. Neurobiology. Prevention. and Treatment , 2005 .

[13]  D. Osgood,et al.  Results of an Independent Evaluation of Project ALERT Delivered in Schools by Cooperative Extension , 2005, Prevention Science.

[14]  K. Dodge,et al.  Children's mental health as a primary care and concern: a system for comprehensive support and service. , 2005, The American psychologist.

[15]  M. A. Scheirer Is Sustainability Possible? A Review and Commentary on Empirical Studies of Program Sustainability , 2005 .

[16]  Robert D Abbott,et al.  Adolescent substance use outcomes in the Raising Healthy Children project: a two-part latent growth curve analysis. , 2005, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[17]  Vijay N. Nair,et al.  A strategy for optimizing and evaluating behavioral interventions , 2005, Annals of behavioral medicine : a publication of the Society of Behavioral Medicine.

[18]  Mary Jo Bitner,et al.  Developing Effective Prevention Services for the Real World: A Prevention Service Development Model , 2005, American journal of community psychology.

[19]  M. Greenberg,et al.  Toward a Comprehensive Strategy for Effective Practitioner–Scientist Partnerships and Larger-Scale Community Health and Well-Being , 2005, American journal of community psychology.

[20]  Robert F. Boruch,et al.  Standards of Evidence: Criteria for Efficacy, Effectiveness and Dissemination , 2005, Prevention Science.

[21]  R W Hingson,et al.  Effects on alcohol related fatal crashes of a community based initiative to increase substance abuse treatment and reduce alcohol availability , 2005, Injury Prevention.

[22]  R. Velleman,et al.  The role of the family in preventing and intervening with substance use and misuse: a comprehensive review of family interventions, with a focus on young people. , 2005, Drug and alcohol review.

[23]  D. Clark,et al.  Childhood risk categories for adolescent substance involvement: a general liability typology. , 2005, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[24]  Lisa C Caldwell,et al.  Alcohol and the adolescent brain: human studies , 2004 .

[25]  K. Dodge,et al.  The Effects of the Fast Track Program on Serious Problem Outcomes at the End of Elementary School , 2004, Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53.

[26]  J. Levin,et al.  Families and Schools Together: an experimental analysis of a parent-mediated multi-family group program for American Indian children , 2004 .

[27]  S. Schinke,et al.  Reducing the risks of alcohol use among urban youth: three-year effects of a computer-based intervention with and without parent involvement. , 2004, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[28]  R. Spoth,et al.  Brief family intervention effects on adolescent substance initiation: school-level growth curve analyses 6 years following baseline. , 2004, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[29]  Edward A. Smith,et al.  Evaluation of life skills training and infused-life skills training in a rural setting: Outcomes at two years , 2004 .

[30]  R. Herzlinger,et al.  Consumer-driven health care: implications for providers, payers, and policy-makers. , 2004, Healthplan.

[31]  R. Millsap,et al.  Risk as a Moderator of the Effects of Prevention Programs for Children from Divorced Families: A Six-Year Longitudinal Study , 2004, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[32]  Chi-Ming Kam,et al.  Sustained Effects of the PATHS Curriculum on the Social and Psychological Adjustment of Children in Special Education , 2004 .

[33]  Mark Greenberg,et al.  PROSPER Community–University Partnership Model for Public Education Systems: Capacity-Building for Evidence-Based, Competence-Building Prevention , 2004, Prevention Science.

[34]  L. Meuleners,et al.  Harm minimization in school drug education: final results of the School Health and Alcohol Harm Reduction Project (SHAHRP). , 2004, Addiction.

[35]  M. Greenberg Current and Future Challenges in School-Based Prevention: The Researcher Perspective , 2004, Prevention Science.

[36]  Delbert S. Elliott,et al.  Issues in Disseminating and Replicating Effective Prevention Programs , 2004, Prevention Science.

[37]  J. Anthony,et al.  Developmentally inspired drug prevention: middle school outcomes in a school-based randomized prevention trial. , 2004, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[38]  K. Lohr Rating the strength of scientific evidence: relevance for quality improvement programs. , 2004, International journal for quality in health care : journal of the International Society for Quality in Health Care.

[39]  Lisa M Klesges,et al.  The future of health behavior change research: What is needed to improve translation of research into health promotion practice? , 2004, Annals of behavioral medicine : a publication of the Society of Behavioral Medicine.

[40]  J. Dearing Improving the State of Health Programming by Using Diffusion Theory , 2004, Journal of health communication.

[41]  R. Catalano,et al.  Positive Youth Development in the United States: Research Findings on Evaluations of Positive Youth Development Programs , 2004 .

[42]  M. Hecht,et al.  Culturally Grounded Substance Use Prevention: An Evaluation of the keepin' it R.E.A.L. Curriculum , 2003, Prevention Science.

[43]  Daniel F McCaffrey,et al.  New inroads in preventing adolescent drug use: results from a large-scale trial of project ALERT in middle schools. , 2003, American journal of public health.

[44]  S. Sussman,et al.  A review of 25 long-term adolescent tobacco and other drug use prevention program evaluations. , 2003, Preventive medicine.

[45]  S. Kellam,et al.  A Framework for Understanding “Evidence” in Prevention Research and Programs , 2003, Prevention Science.

[46]  M. Stoolmiller,et al.  Outcomes during middle school for an elementary school-based preventive intervention for conduct problems: Follow-up results from a randomized trial , 2003 .

[47]  D. Carnine,et al.  The integration of research and practice in the prevention of youth problem behaviors. , 2003, The American psychologist.

[48]  Joseph E. Zins,et al.  Enhancing school-based prevention and youth development through coordinated social, emotional, and academic learning. , 2003, The American psychologist.

[49]  T. Dishion,et al.  Intervening in Adolescent Problem Behavior: A Family-Centered Approach , 2003 .

[50]  Mary Jane Rotheram-Borus,et al.  Next generation of preventive interventions. , 2003, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

[51]  D. Lister-Sharp,et al.  Longer-term primary prevention for alcohol misuse in young people: a systematic review. , 2003, Addiction.

[52]  Carolyn Webster-Stratton,et al.  Parent training of toddlers in day care in low-income urban communities. , 2003, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[53]  Patrick M. O'Malley,et al.  Monitoring the Future National Results on Adolescent Drug Use: Overview of Key Findings, 2004. , 2003 .

[54]  Susan T. Ennett,et al.  A Comparison of Current Practice in School-Based Substance Use Prevention Programs with Meta-Analysis Findings , 2003, Prevention Science.

[55]  David B. Wilson,et al.  Characteristics of Effective School-Based Substance Abuse Prevention , 2003, Prevention Science.

[56]  Linda Taylor,et al.  On Sustainability of Project Innovations as Systemic Change , 2003 .

[57]  Charles B. Fleming,et al.  Raising healthy children through enhancing social development in elementary school: Results after 1.5 years , 2003 .

[58]  Ting-kai Li,et al.  Public health implications of excessive alcohol consumption. , 2003, JAMA.

[59]  J. Califano,et al.  Alcohol consumption and expenditures for underage drinking and adult excessive drinking. , 2003, JAMA.

[60]  D. Clark,et al.  Measuring risks and outcomes in substance use disorders prevention research. , 2002, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[61]  Charles Kadushin,et al.  Fighting back against substance abuse: are community coalitions winning? , 2002, American journal of preventive medicine.

[62]  E. Wells-Parker,et al.  Enhancing the effectiveness of traditional interventions with drinking drivers by adding brief individual intervention components. , 2002, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[63]  B. Plummer,et al.  Six-year follow-up of preventive interventions for children of divorce: a randomized controlled trial. , 2002, JAMA.

[64]  K. Kumpfer,et al.  Cultural Sensitivity and Adaptation in Family-Based Prevention Interventions , 2002, Prevention Science.

[65]  John E. Lochman,et al.  Family-Based Approaches to Substance Abuse Prevention , 2002, Journal of Primary Prevention.

[66]  M. Larimer,et al.  Problem drinking and the workplace: an individualized approach to prevention. , 2002, Psychology of addictive behaviors : journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors.

[67]  C. Dent,et al.  Project towards no drug abuse: a review of the findings and future directions. , 2002, American Journal of Health Behavior.

[68]  L. Kann,et al.  Youth risk behavior surveillance--United States, 2001. , 2002, The Journal of school health.

[69]  K. Dodge,et al.  Child, Parent, and Peer Predictors of Early-Onset Substance Use: A Multisite Longitudinal Study , 2002, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[70]  R. Spoth,et al.  Longitudinal substance initiation outcomes for a universal preventive intervention combining family and school programs. , 2002, Psychology of addictive behaviors : journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors.

[71]  G. Koch,et al.  Influence of a Family Program on Adolescent Smoking and Drinking Prevalence , 2002, Prevention Science.

[72]  M. Guyll,et al.  Universal family-focused interventions in alcohol-use disorder prevention: cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analyses of two interventions. , 2002, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[73]  T. Toomey,et al.  Effects of minimum drinking age laws: review and analyses of the literature from 1960 to 2000. , 2002, Journal of studies on alcohol. Supplement.

[74]  Henry Wechsler,et al.  Magnitude of alcohol-related mortality and morbidity among U.S. college students ages 18-24. , 2002, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[75]  Patrick M O'Malley,et al.  Epidemiology of alcohol and other drug use among American college students. , 2002, Journal of studies on alcohol. Supplement.

[76]  Kelli A Komro,et al.  Project Northland: long-term outcomes of community action to reduce adolescent alcohol use. , 2002, Health education research.

[77]  K. Bierman Evaluation of the First 3 Years of the Fast Track Prevention Trial with Children at High Risk for Adolescent Conduct Problems , 2002, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[78]  C. Webster-Stratton,et al.  Parent Training in Head Start: A Comparison of Program Response Among African American, Asian American, Caucasian, and Hispanic Mothers , 2001, Prevention Science.

[79]  J Jaccard,et al.  Examination of the short-term efficacy of a parent intervention to reduce college student drinking tendencies. , 2001, Psychology of addictive behaviors : journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors.

[80]  Licsw,et al.  Evaluating the effects of a brief motivational intervention for injured drinkers in the emergency department. , 2001, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[81]  Randy W. Elder,et al.  Reviews of evidence regarding interventions to reduce alcohol-impaired driving. , 2001, American journal of preventive medicine.

[82]  G. Koch,et al.  Mediation in a family-directed program for prevention of adolescent tobacco and alcohol use. , 2001, Preventive medicine.

[83]  Carolyn Webster-Stratton,et al.  Nipping Early Risk Factors in the Bud: Preventing Substance Abuse, Delinquency, and Violence in Adolescence Through Interventions Targeted at Young Children (0–8 Years) , 2001, Prevention Science.

[84]  David B. Wilson,et al.  School-Based Prevention of Problem Behaviors: A Meta-Analysis , 2001 .

[85]  R. Spoth,et al.  Randomized trial of brief family interventions for general populations: adolescent substance use outcomes 4 years following baseline. , 2001, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[86]  Jeanne M. Poduska,et al.  The Distal Impact of Two First-Grade Preventive Interventions on Conduct Problems and Disorder in Early Adolescence , 2001 .

[87]  Katherine Irwin,et al.  Blueprints for Violence Prevention , 2001 .

[88]  L W Green,et al.  From research to "best practices" in other settings and populations. , 2001, American journal of health behavior.

[89]  M. Windle,et al.  Depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking among middle adolescents: prospective associations and intrapersonal and interpersonal influences. , 2001, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[90]  T. Dee,et al.  Alcohol abuse and economic conditions: evidence from repeated cross-sections of individual-level data. , 2001, Health economics.

[91]  G. Koch,et al.  The influence of a family program on adolescent tobacco and alcohol use. , 2001, American journal of public health.

[92]  M. Barkham,et al.  Service profiling and outcomes benchmarking using the CORE-OM: toward practice-based evidence in the psychological therapies. Clinical Outcomes in Routine Evaluation-Outcome Measures. , 2001, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[93]  Brian K Bumbarger,et al.  The Prevention of Mental Disorders in School-Aged Children: Current State of the Field , 2001 .

[94]  C. Perry,et al.  How did Project Northland reduce alcohol use among young adolescents? Analysis of mediating variables. , 2001, Health education research.

[95]  Tracy W. Harachi,et al.  PREADOLESCENT PREDICTORS OF SUBSTANCE INITIATION: A TEST OF BOTH THE DIRECT AND MEDIATED EFFECT OF FAMILY SOCIAL CONTROL FACTORS ON DEVIANT PEER ASSOCIATIONS AND SUBSTANCE INITIATION , 2001, The American journal of drug and alcohol abuse.

[96]  G. Koch,et al.  Influence of a Family-Directed Program on Adolescent Cigarette and Alcohol Cessation , 2000, Prevention Science.

[97]  P. Gruenewald,et al.  Effect of community-based interventions on high-risk drinking and alcohol-related injuries. , 2000, JAMA.

[98]  Terry E. Duncan,et al.  Effects of the “Preparing for the Drug Free Years” Curriculum on Growth in Alcohol Use and Risk for Alcohol Use in Early Adolescence , 2000, Prevention Science.

[99]  M. Sanders,et al.  The triple P-positive parenting program: a comparison of enhanced, standard, and self-directed behavioral family intervention for parents of children with early onset conduct problems. , 2000, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[100]  R. Midford,et al.  Early results from a school alcohol harm minimization study: the School Health and Alcohol Harm Reduction Project. , 2000, Addiction.

[101]  J. Eddy,et al.  An Elementary School-Based Prevention Program Targeting Modifiable Antecedents of Youth Delinquency and Violence , 2000 .

[102]  N. Tobler,et al.  School-Based Adolescent Drug Prevention Programs: 1998 Meta-Analysis , 2000, Journal of Primary Prevention.

[103]  T. Marrelli Mental health: A report of the surgeon general , 2000 .

[104]  S. Schinke,et al.  Preventing substance use among Native American youth: three-year results. , 2000, Addictive behaviors.

[105]  D. Mackinnon,et al.  The adolescents training and learning to avoid steroids program: preventing drug use and promoting health behaviors. , 2000, Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine.

[106]  C. Brown,et al.  Principles for Designing Randomized Preventive Trials in Mental Health: An Emerging Developmental Epidemiology Paradigm , 1999, American journal of community psychology.

[107]  Ted R. Miller,et al.  Costs of Underage Drinking , 1999 .

[108]  R. Room,et al.  PREVENTING SUBSTANCE USE PROBLEMS AMONG YOUTH : A LITERATURE REVIEW & RECOMMENDATIONS , 1998 .

[109]  Thomas S. Dee,et al.  State alcohol policies, teen drinking and traffic fatalities , 1999 .

[110]  J. Gehan,et al.  Communities mobilizing for change on alcohol: Lessons and results from a 15‐community randomized trial , 1999 .

[111]  F. Gresham,et al.  Macro-Social Validation: Referencing Outcomes in Behavioral Disorders to Societal Issues and Problems , 1998 .

[112]  C. Henderson,et al.  Long-term effects of nurse home visitation on children's criminal and antisocial behavior: 15-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. , 1998, JAMA.

[113]  J. Yu,et al.  Long-term change in underage drinking and impaired driving after the establishment of drinking age laws in New York State. , 1998, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[114]  H. Kraemer,et al.  Lowering the burden of suffering from child psychiatric disorder: trade-offs among clinical, targeted, and universal interventions. , 1998, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

[115]  C. Hartung,et al.  Validity of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder for younger children. , 1998, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

[116]  D. Mackinnon,et al.  Effects of a community-based prevention program on decreasing drug use in high-risk adolescents. , 1998, American journal of public health.

[117]  C. Brown,et al.  The effect of the level of aggression in the first grade classroom on the course and malleability of aggressive behavior into middle school , 1998, Development and Psychopathology.

[118]  E. Farris,et al.  Violence and Discipline Problems in U.S. Public Schools: 1996-97. , 1998 .

[119]  I. Sigel,et al.  HANDBOOK OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY , 2006 .

[120]  J. Grube Preventing sales of alcohol to minors: results from a community trial. , 1997, Addiction.

[121]  F P Rivara,et al.  Effectiveness of a violence prevention curriculum among children in elementary school. A randomized controlled trial. , 1997, JAMA.

[122]  J. Graham,et al.  Exploring the effects of age of alcohol use initiation and psychosocial risk factors on subsequent alcohol misuse. , 1997, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[123]  J. Durlak,et al.  Primary Prevention Mental Health Programs: The Future is Exciting , 1997, American journal of community psychology.

[124]  H. Wechsler,et al.  BINGE DRINKING IN COLLEGE: THE IMPACT OF PRICE, AVAILABILITY, AND ALCOHOL CONTROL POLICIES , 1996 .

[125]  R Hingson,et al.  Lowering state legal blood alcohol limits to 0.08%: the effect on fatal motor vehicle crashes. , 1996, American journal of public health.

[126]  C. Perry,et al.  Project Northland: outcomes of a communitywide alcohol use prevention program during early adolescence. , 1996, American journal of public health.

[127]  W. A. Wilson,et al.  Age-dependent inhibition of long-term potentiation by ethanol in immature versus mature hippocampus. , 1995, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[128]  L. Mâsse,et al.  Individual and peer characteristics in predicting boys' early onset of substance abuse: a seven-year longitudinal study. , 1995, Child development.

[129]  C. Ruhm Alcohol Policies and Highway Vehicle Fatalities , 1995, Journal of health economics.

[130]  G. Botvin,et al.  Long-term follow-up results of a randomized drug abuse prevention trial in a white middle-class population. , 1995, JAMA.

[131]  S. Kelder,et al.  Alcohol and marijuana use among adolescents: Long-term outcomes of the class of 1989 study , 1995, Annals of behavioral medicine : a publication of the Society of Behavioral Medicine.

[132]  D. Novins,et al.  Reducing Risks for Mental Disorders: Frontiers for Preventive Intervention Research , 1995 .

[133]  T. Heeren,et al.  Lower legal blood alcohol limits for young drivers. , 1994, Public health reports.

[134]  G W Rebok,et al.  The course and malleability of aggressive behavior from early first grade into middle school: results of a developmental epidemiologically-based preventive trial. , 1994, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[135]  H D Holder,et al.  Mandated server training and reduced alcohol-involved traffic crashes: a time series analysis of the Oregon experience. , 1994, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[136]  J. Grube,et al.  Television beer advertising and drinking knowledge, beliefs, and intentions among schoolchildren. , 1994, American journal of public health.

[137]  H. Barnes,et al.  Significant Benefits: The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study Through Age 27 , 1993 .

[138]  Richard E. Tremblay,et al.  Preventing antisocial behavior: Interventions from birth through adolescence. , 1993 .

[139]  M. Windle Temperament and social support in adolescence: Interrelations with depressive symptoms and delinquent behaviors , 1992, Journal of youth and adolescence.

[140]  P. O'Malley,et al.  Effects of minimum drinking age laws on alcohol use, related behaviors and traffic crash involvement among American youth: 1976-1987. , 1991, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[141]  R. Catalano,et al.  Reducing early childhood aggression: results of a primary prevention program. , 1991, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

[142]  P. Asch,et al.  Young Driver Fatalities - the Roles of Drinking Age and Drinking Experience , 1990 .

[143]  William B. Hansen,et al.  Effects of Program Implementation on Adolescent Drug Use Behavior , 1990 .

[144]  D. Mackinnon,et al.  A multicommunity trial for primary prevention of adolescent drug abuse. Effects on drug use prevalence. , 1989, JAMA.

[145]  P L Graitcer,et al.  Reduction in motor vehicle fatalities associated with an increase in the minimum drinking age. , 1988, JAMA.

[146]  D. J. Hanson,et al.  University students' drinking patterns and problems: examining the effects of raising the purchase age. , 1988, Public health reports.

[147]  James T. Wilkinson Reducing Drunken Driving: Which Policies Are Most Effective? , 1987 .

[148]  A. Wagenaar Preventing highway crashes by raising the legal minimum age for drinking: The Michigan experience 6 years later☆ , 1986 .

[149]  R. Lillis,et al.  Changes in alcohol consumption by 18-year-olds following an increase in New York State's purchase age to 19. , 1986, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[150]  T. Heeren,et al.  Legislation raising the legal drinking age in Massachusetts from 18 to 20: effect on 16 and 17 year-olds. , 1984, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[151]  C. Koop Report of the Surgeon General's Workshop on Organ Procurement: Liver Transplantation--NIH Consensus Development Conference at the National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD , 1983 .

[152]  A. Meyers,et al.  Impact of legislation raising the legal drinking age in Massachusetts from 18 to 20. , 1983, American journal of public health.

[153]  G. Spivack,et al.  Interpersonal problem-solving in young children: A cognitive approach to prevention , 1982, American journal of community psychology.

[154]  L. Schweinhart,et al.  Young Children Grow Up: The Effects of the Perry Preschool Program on Youths Through Age 15. , 1982 .

[155]  E Vingilis,et al.  Effects of raising the legal drinking age in Ontario. , 1981, British journal of addiction.

[156]  J. McCann Treating and preventing adolescent mental health disorders. What we know and what we don't know. , 2007 .

[157]  Stefan C. Dombrowski,et al.  Perinatal exposure in later psychological and behavioral disabilities. , 2007 .

[158]  Karen A. Blase,et al.  Implementation Research: A Synthesis of the , 2005 .

[159]  S. Tapert,et al.  The human adolescent brain and alcohol use disorders. , 2005, Recent developments in alcoholism : an official publication of the American Medical Society on Alcoholism, the Research Society on Alcoholism, and the National Council on Alcoholism.

[160]  R. Bonnie,et al.  Social, Health, and Economic Consequences of Underage Drinking , 2004 .

[161]  R. Bonnie,et al.  Underage Drinking in the United States , 2004 .

[162]  Kenneth W Griffin,et al.  Effectiveness of a universal drug abuse prevention approach for youth at high risk for substance use initiation. , 2003, Preventive medicine.

[163]  S. Swan,et al.  A workplace coping-skills intervention to prevent alcohol abuse. , 2003 .

[164]  David Hawks,et al.  PREVENTION OF PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCE USE A Selected Review of What Works in the Area of Prevention , 2003 .

[165]  P. Cuijpers,et al.  The effects of drug abuse prevention at school: the 'Healthy School and Drugs' project. , 2002, Addiction.

[166]  Traci L Toomey,et al.  Strategies to Prevent Underage Drinking , 2002, Alcohol research & health : the journal of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.

[167]  L. Jason,et al.  Innovative strategies for promoting health and mental health across the life span , 2002 .

[168]  D. Abrams Transdisciplinary paradigms for tobacco prevention research. , 1999, Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.

[169]  K. Dodge,et al.  Initial impact of the Fast Track prevention trial for conduct problems: II. Classroom effects. Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. , 1999, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[170]  K. Dodge,et al.  Initial impact of the Fast Track prevention trial for conduct problems: I. The high-risk sample. Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. , 1999, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[171]  D. Satcher Mental Health: A Report of the Surgen General , 1999 .

[172]  C. Webster-Stratton Parent Training with Low-Income Families , 1998 .

[173]  J L Collins,et al.  Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance--United States, 1997. State and Local YRBSS Coordinators. , 1998, The Journal of school health.

[174]  K. Ann Renninger,et al.  Handbook Of Child Psychology: Child Psychology In Practice , 1998 .

[175]  M. Saar,et al.  Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention , 1998 .

[176]  D A Dawson,et al.  Age at onset of alcohol use and its association with DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence: results from the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey. , 1997, Journal of substance abuse.

[177]  Richard E. Tremblay,et al.  From childhood physical aggression to adolescent maladjustment: The Montreal prevention experiment. , 1996 .

[178]  Robert J. McMahon,et al.  Preventing childhood disorders, substance abuse, and delinquency. , 1996 .

[179]  H. Fitzgerald,et al.  The Development of Alcoholic Subtypes: Risk Variation Among Alcoholic Families During the Early Childhood Years. , 1996 .

[180]  David N. Figlio,et al.  The Effect of Drinking Age Laws and Alcohol‐Related Crashes: Time‐Series Evidence from Wisconsin , 1995 .

[181]  Patricia J. Mrazek,et al.  Reducing risks for mental disorders: Frontiers for preventive intervention research. , 1994 .

[182]  S G West,et al.  The science of prevention. A conceptual framework and some directions for a national research program. , 1993, The American psychologist.

[183]  R. Abbott,et al.  The Seattle Social Development Project: Effects of the first four years on protective factors and problem behaviors. , 1992 .

[184]  George W. Rebok,et al.  Building developmental and etiological theory through epidemiologically based preventive intervention trials. , 1992 .

[185]  D. Olweus Bully/victim problems among schoolchildren: Basic facts and effects of a school based intervention program. , 1991 .

[186]  Kenneth H. Rubin,et al.  The development and treatment of childhood aggression. , 1991 .

[187]  R M Bell,et al.  Drug prevention in junior high: a multi-site longitudinal test. , 1990, Science.

[188]  L Saxe,et al.  Control Issues in Alcohol Abuse Prevention: Strategies for States and Communities , 1989 .

[189]  H. Perkins,et al.  Stability and Contradiction in College Students' Drinking Following a Drinking-Age Law Change. , 1989 .

[190]  D P MacKinnon,et al.  The impact of raising the minimum drinking age on driver fatalities. , 1986, The International journal of the addictions.