The contribution of neighborhood and family income to developmental test scores over the first three years of life.

The effects of neighborhood and family income and family risk factors on developmental test scores at ages 1 through 3 are examined using a subsample (N = 347) from the Infant Health and Development Program. Beneficial effects of low numbers of risks were found for scores at ages 1 through 3. Family poverty was associated with lower scores at ages 2 and 3. Neighborhood affluence was associated with higher scores at age 3. The family risks-test score association at ages 1 through 3 and family income-test score association at ages 2 and 3 were mediated by home environment. Mediated effects were stronger for family income-test score associations at age 3 than for neighborhood income. Moderating effects of family risk on family and neighborhood income effects revealed an interaction between family poverty and risks for scores at age 3. Explanations for the early links between family risks and test scores and the later links between income and test scores are discussed.

[1]  W. Kennedy,et al.  PreschoollQ: Prenatal and early developmental correlates , 2017 .

[2]  N. Bayley.  Bayley Scales of Infant Development , 1999 .

[3]  Greg J. Duncan,et al.  The Consequences of Growing Up Poor , 1999 .

[4]  Greg J. Duncan,et al.  Neighborhood Poverty: Context and Consequences for Children, Volume I, and Neighborhood Poverty: Policy Implications in Studying Neighborhoods, Volume II , 1999 .

[5]  J. Brooks-Gunn,et al.  Escape from Poverty: What Makes a Difference for Children? P. Lindsay Chase-Lansdale and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn (Eds.). , 1998, The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare.

[6]  S. Raudenbush,et al.  Neighborhoods and violent crime: a multilevel study of collective efficacy. , 1997, Science.

[7]  P. L. Chase‐Lansdale,et al.  Economic hardship and the development of five- and six-year-olds: Neighborhood and regional perspectives. , 1996 .

[8]  H. McAdoo,et al.  An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. , 1996, Child development.

[9]  M. Ensminger,et al.  School leaving: a longitudinal perspective including neighborhood effects. , 1996, Child development.

[10]  G. Duncan,et al.  Ethnic differences in children's intelligence test scores: role of economic deprivation, home environment, and maternal characteristics. , 1996, Child development.

[11]  R. Plomin,et al.  Genetic and environmental influences on temperament in middle childhood: analyses of teacher and tester ratings. , 1996, Child development.

[12]  C. Patterson,et al.  Childhood aggression and peer relations in the context of family and neighborhood factors. , 1995, Child development.

[13]  J. Brooks-Gunn,et al.  Cumulative familial risks and low-birthweight children's cognitive and behavioral development , 1994 .

[14]  S. Korenman,et al.  Poverty and children's nutritional status in the United States. , 1994, American journal of epidemiology.

[15]  M. Lewis,et al.  Environmental Risk, Biological Risk, and Developmental Outcome. , 1994 .

[16]  R. Loeber,et al.  Do individual factors and neighborhood context explain ethnic differences in juvenile delinquency? , 1994 .

[17]  V. Molfese,et al.  Biomedical and Social-Environmental Influences on Cognitive and Verbal Abilities in Children 1 to 3 Years of Age , 1994 .

[18]  G. Duncan,et al.  Economic deprivation and early childhood development. , 1994, Child development.

[19]  E. Pollitt,et al.  Poverty and child development: relevance of research in developing countries to the United States. , 1994, Child development.

[20]  T. Jayaratne,et al.  Unemployment and work interruption among African American single mothers: effects on parenting and adolescent socioemotional functioning. , 1994, Child development.

[21]  R. Bradley,et al.  Early indications of resilience and their relation to experiences in the home environments of low birthweight, premature children living in poverty. , 1994, Child development.

[22]  A. Huston,et al.  Children and poverty: issues in contemporary research. , 1994, Child development.

[23]  Greg J. Duncan,et al.  Do Neighborhoods Influence Child and Adolescent Development? , 1993, American Journal of Sociology.

[24]  J. Brooks-Gunn,et al.  Enhancing the development of low-birthweight, premature infants: changes in cognition and behavior over the first three years. , 1993, Child development.

[25]  N. Constantine,et al.  Recruitment and Retention in a Clinical Trial for Low Birth Weight, Premature Infants , 1993, Journal of developmental and behavioral pediatrics : JDBP.

[26]  A. Sameroff,et al.  Stability of intelligence from preschool to adolescence: the influence of social and family risk factors. , 1993, Child development.

[27]  R D Conger,et al.  A family process model of economic hardship and adjustment of early adolescent boys. , 1992, Child development.

[28]  Kenneth D. Bailey,et al.  Macro-micro linkages in sociology , 1992 .

[29]  G. Peckham,et al.  The health and developmental status of very low-birth-weight children at school age. , 1992, JAMA.

[30]  J. Brooks-Gunn,et al.  Effects of Early Intervention on Cognitive Function of Low Birth Weight Preterm Infants, , 1992, The Journal of pediatrics.

[31]  J. E. Kaufman,et al.  Social Integration of Low-Income Black Adults in Middle-Class White Suburbs , 1991 .

[32]  Stephen W. Raudenbush,et al.  Neighborhood Effects on Educational Attainment: A Multilevel Analysis. , 1991 .

[33]  Lawrence F. Katz,et al.  The Company You Keep: The Effects of Family and Neighborhood on Disadvantaged Youths , 1991 .

[34]  J. Crane.  The Epidemic Theory of Ghettos and Neighborhood Effects on Dropping Out and Teenage Childbearing , 1991, American Journal of Sociology.

[35]  William Julius Wilson,et al.  Studying Inner-City Social Dislocations: The Challenge of Public Agenda Research. , 1991 .

[36]  V. Mcloyd,et al.  The impact of economic hardship on black families and children: psychological distress, parenting, and socioemotional development. , 1990, Child development.

[37]  D. Polit.  Effects of a comprehensive program for teenage parents: five years after project redirection. , 1989, Family planning perspectives.

[38]  C. Ramey,et al.  Home Environment and Cognitive Development in the First 3 Years of Life: A Collaborative Study Involving Six Sites and Three Ethnic Groups in North America , 1989 .

[39]  R. Sampson,et al.  Community Structure and Crime: Testing Social-Disorganization Theory , 1989, American Journal of Sociology.

[40]  M. Greenberg,et al.  Longitudinal predictors of developmental status and social interaction in premature and full-term infants at age two. , 1988, Child development.

[41]  S. Greenspan,et al.  Intelligence quotient scores of 4-year-old children: social-environmental risk factors. , 1987, Pediatrics.

[42]  P. Auld,et al.  Consistency and change in the development of premature infants weighing less than 1,501 grams at birth. , 1985, Pediatrics.

[43]  V. Seitz,et al.  Effects of family support intervention: a ten-year follow-up. , 1985, Child development.

[44]  A. H. Parmelee,et al.  Prediction of five-year Stanford-Binet scores in preterm infants. , 1983, Child development.

[45]  S. Escalona.  Babies at double hazard: early development of infants at biologic and social risk. , 1982, Pediatrics.

[46]  L. Siegel,et al.  Reproductive, perinatal, and environmental factors as predictors of the cognitive and language development of preterm and full-term infants. , 1982, Child development.

[47]  Theodore D. Wachs,et al.  Early Experience and Human Development , 1982 .

[48]  R. Mccall.  Nature–nurture and the two realms of development: A proposed integration with respect to mental development. , 1981 .

[49]  R. Bradley,et al.  The Relation of Home Environment, Cognitive Competence, and IQ among Males and Females. , 1980 .

[50]  Gerald M Spielman.  Infants Born at Risk , 1980, Archives of disease in childhood.

[51]  R. Rubin,et al.  Measures of Infant Development and Socioeconomic Status as Predictors of Later Intelligence and School Achievement. , 1979 .

[52]  R. Mccall,et al.  Transitions in infant sensorimotor development and the prediction of childhood IQ. , 1972, The American psychologist.

[53]  A. Huston.  Effects of poverty on children. , 1999 .

[54]  J. Brooks-Gunn,et al.  The effects of poverty on children. , 1997, The Future of children.

[55]  A. Kahn,et al.  Children and their families in big cities: Strategies for service reform. , 1996 .

[56]  P. Landrigan,et al.  Environmental policy and children's health. , 1995, The Future of children.

[57]  S. Danziger,et al.  Child poverty, public policy and welfare reform , 1995 .

[58]  C. Bearer,et al.  Environmental health hazards: how children are different from adults. , 1995, The Future of children.

[59]  S. Ehly,et al.  Succeeding Generations: On the Effects of Investments in Children , 1994 .

[60]  Douglas K. Detterman,et al.  Individual Differences and Cognition , 1993 .

[61]  Laurence E. Lynn,et al.  Inner-city poverty in the United States , 1990 .

[62]  J. Holmes,et al.  The planning of pregnancy among low-income women in central Harlem. , 1987, American journal of obstetrics and gynecology.

[63]  D. A. Kenny,et al.  The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. , 1986, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[64]  L. Siegel.  6 – Home Environmental Influences on Cognitive Development in Preterm and Full-term Children during the First 5 Years , 1984 .

[65]  R. Mccall.  A Conceptual Approach to Early Mental Development , 1983 .

[66]  M. A. Merrill,et al.  Stanford-Binet intelligence scale : manual for the third revision form L-M , 1973 .