Air Pollution and Global Warming: History, Science, and Solutions

1. Basics and discovery of atmospheric chemicals 2. The sun, the Earth, and the evolution of the Earth's atmosphere 3. Structure and composition of the present-day atmosphere 4. Urban air pollution 5. Aerosol particles in the polluted and global atmosphere 6. Effects of meteorology on air pollution 7. Effects of pollution on visibility, UV radiation, and colors in the sky 8. International regulation of urban smog since the 1940s 9. Indoor air pollution 10. Acid deposition 11. Global stratospheric ozone reduction 12. The greenhouse effect and global warming 13. Energy solutions to air pollution and global warming.

[1]  T. Ackerman,et al.  Absorption of visible radiation in atmosphere containing mixtures of absorbing and nonabsorbing particles. , 1981, Applied optics.

[2]  C. Owen,et al.  ISTP observations of plasmoid ejection: IMP 8 and Geotail , 1998 .

[3]  Rudolf B. Husar,et al.  Haze trends over the United States, 1980-1995 , 2001 .

[4]  R. McKenzie,et al.  Changes in biologically active ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth’s surface , 2003, Photochemical & photobiological sciences : Official journal of the European Photochemistry Association and the European Society for Photobiology.

[5]  David John Lary Catalytic destruction of stratospheric ozone , 1997 .

[6]  D V Bates,et al.  Air pollution and health. , 1988, The American review of respiratory disease.

[7]  M. Zahniser,et al.  Vapor Pressures of Solid Hydrates of Nitric Acid: Implications for Polar Stratospheric Clouds , 1993, Science.

[8]  N. Motallebi,et al.  Climate change impact on California on-road mobile source emissions , 2008 .

[9]  P. Buseck,et al.  Atmospheric tar balls from biomass burning in Mexico , 2009 .

[10]  E. Ray,et al.  Stratospheric water vapor trends over Boulder, Colorado: Analysis of the 30 year Boulder record , 2011 .

[11]  Majid Ezzati,et al.  Fine-particulate air pollution and life expectancy in the United States. , 2009, The New England journal of medicine.

[12]  J. Logan,et al.  Effect of rising Asian emissions on surface ozone in the United States , 1999 .

[13]  M. Bergin,et al.  Urban Ozone Control and Atmospheric Reactivity of Organic Gases , 1995, Science.

[14]  R. Turco,et al.  Air pollutant transport in a coastal environment—II. Three-dimensional simulations over Los Angeles basin , 1995 .

[15]  A. J. Haagen-Smit The Air Pollution Problem in Los Angeles , 1950 .

[16]  S. Chinn,et al.  Passive smoking and respiratory conditions in primary school children. , 1988, Journal of epidemiology and community health.

[17]  R. Douglas,et al.  Respiratory effects associated with indoor nitrogen dioxide exposure in children. , 1997, International journal of epidemiology.

[18]  Sungmin Hong,et al.  Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations , 1994, Science.

[19]  T. Kawamoto,et al.  Indoor pollution from heating. , 1996, Industrial health.

[20]  M. Schwarzberg Carbon dioxide level as a migraine threshold factor: hypothesis and possible solutions. , 1993, Medical hypotheses.

[21]  J. Hansen,et al.  Soot climate forcing via snow and ice albedos. , 2004, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[22]  B. Doddridge,et al.  Large-scale pollution of the atmosphere over the remote Atlantic Ocean: Evidence from Bermuda , 1995 .

[23]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part II: Reliability, system and transmission costs, and policies , 2011 .

[24]  H. Burtscher,et al.  Structure and disposition of particles from a spark-ignition engine , 1992 .

[25]  G. Stenchikov,et al.  The impact of aerosols on solar ultraviolet radiation and photochemical smog. , 1997, Science.

[26]  Claus Fröhlich,et al.  Solar radiative output and its variability: evidence and mechanisms , 2004 .

[27]  F. Bray,et al.  An ecological study of cancer incidence and radon levels in South West England. , 1996, European journal of cancer.

[28]  John William Strutt,et al.  XV. On the light from the sky, its polarization and colour , 1871 .

[29]  S. Larson,et al.  Monitoring Long-term Trends in Sulfate and Ammonium in US Precipitation: Results from the National Atmospheric Deposition Program/National Trends Network , 2007 .

[30]  Gilbert M. Masters,et al.  Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science , 1991 .

[31]  A. Méndez,et al.  Clinicopathological study of an outbreak of squamous cell carcinoma in sheep , 1997, Veterinary Record.

[32]  Corinne Le Quéré,et al.  Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis , 2013 .

[33]  M. Jacobson Effects of ethanol (E85) versus gasoline vehicles on cancer and mortality in the United States. , 2007, Environmental science & technology.

[34]  M. Andreae,et al.  Internal Mixture of Sea Salt, Silicates, and Excess Sulfate in Marine Aerosols , 1986, Science.

[35]  L. Olsson,et al.  Detailed Mesometeorological Studies of Air Pollution Dispersion in the Chicago Lake Breeze1 , 1973 .

[36]  J. W. Winchester,et al.  Iodine, bromine, and chlorine in the Hawaiian marine atmosphere , 1965 .

[37]  S. Larson,et al.  Effect of Surfactant Layers on the Size Changes of Aerosol Particles as a Function of Relative Humidity , 1993 .

[38]  I. Andersen,et al.  Indoor air pollution due to chipboard used as a construction material , 1975 .

[39]  S. Klein,et al.  Synoptic Variability of Low-Cloud Properties and Meteorological Parameters in the Subtropical Trade Wind Boundary Layer , 1997 .

[40]  R. Glasgow,et al.  Lay Understanding of Synergistic Risk: The Case of Radon and Cigarette Smoking , 1998, Risk analysis : an official publication of the Society for Risk Analysis.

[41]  W. Brock The Norton history of chemistry , 1993 .

[42]  D. L. Simms,et al.  Pan's Travail: Environmental Problems of the Ancient Greeks and Romans , 1993 .

[43]  E. T. Wherry A SOURCE OF BOTANICAL MISINFORMATION. , 1934, Science.

[44]  P. Chylek,et al.  Black carbon and absorption of solar radiation by clouds , 1996 .

[45]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  Microphysical and radiative effects of aerosols on warm clouds during the Amazon biomass burning season as observed by MODIS: impacts of water vapor and land cover , 2011 .

[46]  W. Zoller,et al.  Iridium Enrichment in Airborne Particles from Kilauea Volcano: January 1983 , 1983, Science.

[47]  S. Weinbruch,et al.  Transmission electron microscopical and aerosol dynamical characterization of soot aerosols , 2003 .

[48]  Edward Kahn,et al.  The reliability of distributed wind generators , 1979 .

[49]  P. Morrow,et al.  Effects of nitrogen dioxide exposure on pulmonary function and airway reactivity in normal humans. , 1991, The American review of respiratory disease.

[50]  Ilan Koren,et al.  Measurement of the Effect of Amazon Smoke on Inhibition of Cloud Formation , 2004, Science.

[51]  R. Gunn,et al.  AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON THE INITIATION OF RAIN , 1957 .

[52]  R. Welch,et al.  One-Dimensional Numerical Simulation of the Effects of Air Pollution on the Planetary Boundary Layer , 1976 .

[53]  Margaret K. Mann,et al.  Life Cycle Assessment of a Natural Gas Combined-Cycle Power Generation System , 2000 .

[54]  B. Huebert,et al.  Sulfur and halogen chemistry of the stratosphere and of volcanic eruption plumes , 1979 .

[55]  D. Deligiorgi,et al.  Sea-breeze circulation and photochemical pollution in Athens, Greece , 1983 .

[56]  Mayer Sj Stratospheric ozone depletion and animal health , 1992 .

[57]  J. Hansen,et al.  Efficacy of climate forcings , 2005 .

[58]  M. Zheng,et al.  The solvent-extractable organic compounds in the Indonesia biomass burning aerosols - characterization studies , 1999 .

[59]  K. Bishop,et al.  Acidification Remediation Alternatives: Exploring the Temporal Dimension with Cost Benefit Analysis , 2010, AMBIO.

[60]  Jacinto F. Fabiosa,et al.  Use of U.S. Croplands for Biofuels Increases Greenhouse Gases Through Emissions from Land-Use Change , 2008, Science.

[61]  R. Pielke,et al.  A numerical analysis of Los Angeles basin pollution transport to the Grand Canyon under stably stratified Southwest flow conditions , 1994 .

[62]  G. Wolff,et al.  Visibility-reducing species in the denver “brown cloud”—I. Relationships between extinction and chemical composition , 1981 .

[63]  E. Duhig,et al.  Lung Asbestos Content in Lungs Resected for Primary Lung Cancer , 2008, Journal of Thoracic Oncology.

[64]  J. Samet,et al.  Health effects and sources of indoor air pollution. Part I. , 1987, The American review of respiratory disease.

[65]  M. V. Ramana,et al.  Nuclear Power: Economic, Safety, Health, and Environmental Issues of Near-Term Technologies , 2009 .

[66]  J. Prospero,et al.  Effect of continental sources on nitrate concentrations over the Pacific Ocean , 1989, Nature.

[67]  R. Stull An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology , 1988 .

[68]  S. Friedlander,et al.  Size distributions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and elemental carbon. 2. Ambient measurements and effects of atmospheric processes. , 1994, Environmental science & technology.

[69]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  Review of solutions to global warming, air pollution, and energy security , 2009 .

[70]  J. C. van der Leun,et al.  Environmental effects of ozone depletion: 1998 Assessment , 1998 .

[71]  P. Kasibhatla,et al.  The global impact of human activity on tropospheric ozone , 1997 .

[72]  M. Kleeman A preliminary assessment of the sensitivity of air quality in California to global change , 2008 .

[73]  M. Jacobson,et al.  Strong radiative heating due to the mixing state of black carbon in atmospheric aerosols , 2022 .

[74]  A. Marsh Sulphur and nitrogen contributions to the acidity of rain , 1978 .

[75]  S. Wakamatsu,et al.  Aircraft survey of the secondary photochemical pollutants covering the Tokyo metropolitan area , 1983 .

[76]  M. Jacobson,et al.  Global‐through‐urban nested three‐dimensional simulation of air pollution with a 13,600‐reaction photochemical mechanism , 2010 .

[77]  J. Seinfeld,et al.  Secondary organic aerosol formation and transport , 1992 .

[78]  Frank Arnold,et al.  Intercontinental air pollution transport from North America to Europe: Experimental evidence from airborne measurements and surface observations , 2005 .

[79]  G. M. Hale,et al.  Optical Constants of Water in the 200-nm to 200-microm Wavelength Region. , 1973, Applied optics.

[80]  S. Madronich,et al.  Changes in tropospheric composition and air quality. , 1998, Journal of photochemistry and photobiology. B, Biology.

[81]  R. Turco,et al.  Evolution of an impact-generated dust cloud and its effects on the atmosphere , 1982 .

[82]  R. Kamens,et al.  The Significance and Characteristics of the Personal Activity Cloud on Exposure Assessment Measurements for Indoor Contaminants , 1991 .

[83]  C. L. Archer,et al.  Evaluation of global wind power , 2005 .

[84]  D. Gold,et al.  Indoor air pollution. , 1992, Clinics in chest medicine.

[85]  P. Samson,et al.  Impact of temperature on oxidant photochemistry in urban, polluted rural and remote environments , 1995 .

[86]  B. Cohen,et al.  Deposition of charged particles on lung airways. , 1998, Health physics.

[87]  W. Carter Development of Ozone Reactivity Scales for Volatile Organic Compounds , 1994 .

[88]  D. Kane,et al.  Toxic trace elements associated with airborne particulate matter: a review. , 1987, JAPCA.

[89]  Wanner Hu Sources of pollutants in indoor air. , 1993 .

[90]  P. Switzer,et al.  Investigations of the proximity effect for pollutants in the indoor environment , 1999, Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology.

[91]  J. D. Hays,et al.  The Last Interglacial Ocean , 1984, Quaternary Research.

[92]  Peter Bergamaschi,et al.  Global column-averaged methane mixing ratios from 2003 to 2009 as derived from SCIAMACHY: Trends and variability , 2011 .

[93]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  Large CO2 reductions via offshore wind power matched to inherent storage in energy end‐uses , 2007 .

[94]  J. Christy,et al.  Precise Monitoring of Global Temperature Trends from Satellites , 1990, Science.

[95]  D. Streets,et al.  A technology‐based global inventory of black and organic carbon emissions from combustion , 2004 .

[96]  T. Ackerman A Model of the Effect of Aerosols on Urban Climates with Particular Applications to the Los Angeles Basin , 1977 .

[97]  R. Waitt Case for periodic, colossal jökulhlaups from Pleistocene glacial Lake Missoula , 1985 .

[98]  M. Molina,et al.  Stratospheric sink for chlorofluoromethanes: chlorine atomc-atalysed destruction of ozone , 1974, Nature.

[99]  A. Montanaro,et al.  Indoor air pollution and health , 1997 .

[100]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  Climate response of fossil fuel and biofuel soot, accounting for soot's feedback to snow and sea ice albedo and emissivity , 2004 .

[101]  B. O. Brooks,et al.  Indoor air pollution: an edifice complex. , 1991, Journal of toxicology. Clinical toxicology.

[102]  P. Mcmurry,et al.  Size distributions of ambient organic and elemental carbon , 1989 .

[103]  P. Chylek,et al.  Effect of Graphitic Carbon on the Albedo of Clouds , 1984 .

[104]  R. Viskanta,et al.  Modeling of the Effects of Gaseous and Particulate Pollutants in the Urban Atmosphere. Part I: Thermal Structure , 1973 .

[105]  Joel Schwartz,et al.  Black Carbon Exposure, Oxidative Stress Genes, and Blood Pressure in a Repeated-Measures Study , 2009, Environmental health perspectives.

[106]  P. Buseck,et al.  Fractal geometry of carbonaceous aggregates from an urban aerosol , 1993 .

[107]  R. Lee,et al.  Exposure to airborne asbestos in buildings. , 1992, Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology : RTP.

[108]  T. Powers,et al.  Random-effects linear regression meta-analysis models with application to the nitrogen dioxide health effects studies. , 1994, Air & waste : journal of the Air & Waste Management Association.

[109]  Donald A. Hanson,et al.  Cost effective control of urban smog , 1993 .

[110]  R. Garrels,et al.  The carbonate-silicate geochemical cycle and its effect on atmospheric carbon dioxide over the past 100 million years , 1983 .

[111]  M. Jacobson Studying the effects of aerosols on vertical photolysis rate coefficient and temperature profiles over an urban airshed , 1998 .

[112]  E. Box,et al.  A world model of soil carbon dioxide , 1983 .

[113]  D. Dockery,et al.  An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.S. cities. , 1993, The New England journal of medicine.

[114]  R. Turco,et al.  Condensation of HNO3 and HCl in the winter polar stratospheres , 1986 .

[115]  Andrea R Ferro,et al.  Elevated personal exposure to particulate matter from human activities in a residence , 2004, Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology.

[116]  Willett Kempton,et al.  Vehicle-to-grid power fundamentals: Calculating capacity and net revenue , 2005 .

[117]  B. Simoneit,et al.  Urban aerosol particles of Santiago, Chile:: organic content and molecular characterization , 2000 .

[118]  J. D. Hays,et al.  Investigation of Late Quaternary Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology , 1976 .

[119]  J. Reid,et al.  Physical and optical properties of young smoke from individual biomass fires in Brazil , 1998 .

[120]  Zhifang Xu,et al.  Chemical and strontium isotope characterization of rainwater in Beijing, China. , 2009 .

[121]  Craig A Fitzner,et al.  Measurement of Ozone Levels by Ship Along the Eastern Shore of Lake Michigan , 1989 .

[122]  G. Carmichael,et al.  The aging process of naturally emitted aerosol (sea-salt and mineral aerosol) during long range transport , 1999 .

[123]  G. Kukla Pleistocene land—sea correlations I. Europe , 1977 .

[124]  G. Tomlinson Air pollutants and forest decline. , 1983, Environmental science & technology.

[125]  J. Russell,et al.  Trends in stratospheric humidity and the sensitivity of ozone to these trends , 1998 .

[126]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  Fundamentals of atmospheric modeling , 1998 .

[127]  W. Middleton,et al.  Vision Through the Atmosphere , 1952 .

[128]  H. Stommel,et al.  The Year without a Summer , 1979 .

[129]  Robert W. Pasken,et al.  Using dispersion and mesoscale meteorological models to forecast pollen concentrations , 2005 .

[130]  A. McMichael,et al.  Risk factors for tumors of the brain and meninges: Results from the Adelaide adult brain tumor study , 1992, International journal of cancer.

[131]  M. Jacobson,et al.  Enhanced coagulation due to evaporation and its effect on nanoparticle evolution. , 2005, Environmental science & technology.

[132]  M. Kleeman,et al.  Evaluating the first‐order effect of intraannual temperature variability on urban air pollution , 2003 .

[133]  Thomas C. Peterson,et al.  Maximum and Minimum Temperature Trends for the Globe , 1997 .

[134]  F. Campbell,et al.  Contrast and spatial frequency. , 1974, Scientific American.

[135]  F. Matthes Report of Committee on Glaciers, April 1939 , 1939 .

[136]  B. Doddridge,et al.  Transport of ozone and pollutants from North America to the North Atlantic Ocean during the 1996 Atmosphere/Ocean Chemistry Experiment (AEROCE) intensive , 1999 .

[137]  T. Graedel,et al.  Chemistry within aqueous atmospheric aerosols and raindrops , 1981 .

[138]  Philip J. Rasch,et al.  Present-day climate forcing and response from black carbon in snow , 2006 .

[139]  M. Parry,et al.  The climate of London , 1966 .

[140]  M. Jacobson Analysis of aerosol interactions with numerical techniques for solving coagulation, nucleation, condensation, dissolution, and reversible chemistry among multiple size distributions , 2002 .

[141]  D. Erickson,et al.  Effects of enhanced solar ultraviolet radiation on biogeochemical cycles , 1998 .

[142]  W. Palma,et al.  An intervention analysis of air quality data at Santiago, Chile , 2000 .

[143]  Allison L. Steiner,et al.  Influence of future climate and emissions on regional air quality in California , 2006 .

[144]  I. Sokolik,et al.  Complex refractive index of atmospheric dust aerosols , 1993 .

[145]  S. Solomon,et al.  On the depletion of Antarctic ozone , 1986, Nature.

[146]  C. Pope Review: Epidemiological Basis for Particulate Air Pollution Health Standards , 2000 .

[147]  Ken R. Smith Fuel Combustion, Air Pollution Exposure, and Health: The Situation in Developing Countries , 1993 .

[148]  T. Platts-Mills,et al.  Asthma and indoor exposure to allergens. , 1997, The New England journal of medicine.

[149]  E. L. Ladurie,et al.  Times of Feast, Times of Famine: A History of Climate Since the Year 1000 , 1972 .

[150]  John R. McNeill,et al.  Something New Under The Sun , 2000 .

[151]  David Parker,et al.  A Demonstration That Large-Scale Warming Is Not Urban , 2006 .

[152]  A. Stohl,et al.  Have aerosols affected trends in visibility and precipitation in Europe , 2011 .

[153]  M. Jacobson,et al.  A study of sulfur dioxide oxidation pathways over a range of liquid water contents, pH values, and temperatures , 1999 .

[154]  J. Kasting,et al.  Life and the Evolution of Earth's Atmosphere , 2002, Science.

[155]  Peter A. Crozier,et al.  Brown Carbon Spheres in East Asian Outflow and Their Optical Properties , 2008, Science.

[156]  E. Eriksson The Yearly Circulation of Chloride and Sulfur in Nature; Meteorological, Geochemical and Pedological Implications. Part II , 1959 .

[157]  J. Lelieveld,et al.  Role of mineral aerosol as a reactive surface in the global troposphere , 1996 .

[158]  R. Weiss,et al.  A history of chemically and radiatively important gases in air deduced from ALE/GAGE/AGAGE , 2000 .

[159]  J. Hansen,et al.  Radiative forcing and climate response , 1997 .

[160]  J. Seinfeld,et al.  Development and evaluation of a photooxidation mechanism for isoprene , 1992 .

[161]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part I: Technologies, energy resources, quantities and areas of infrastructure, and materials , 2011 .

[162]  D. Jacob Comment on “The photochemistry of a remote stratiform cloud” by William L. Chameides , 1985 .

[163]  V. Ramanathan,et al.  Global and regional climate changes due to black carbon , 2008 .

[164]  G. Gordon,et al.  Composition and size distributions of particles released in refuse incineration , 1978 .

[165]  B. Albrecht Aerosols, Cloud Microphysics, and Fractional Cloudiness , 1989, Science.

[166]  John H. Seinfeld,et al.  Climate response of direct radiative forcing of anthropogenic black carbon , 2005 .

[167]  S. Kreidenweis,et al.  Influence of sea-salt on aerosol radiative properties in the Southern Ocean marine boundary layer , 1998, Nature.

[168]  Thomas C. Peterson,et al.  Assessment of Urban versus Rural in Situ surface temperatures in the contiguous United States: No di , 2003 .

[169]  R. Burnett,et al.  Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. , 2002, JAMA.

[170]  M. Jenkin,et al.  Hydrocarbons and the long-range transport of ozone and pan across Europe , 1991 .

[171]  J Schwander,et al.  High-resolution record of Northern Hemisphere climate extending into the last interglacial period , 2004, Nature.

[172]  L. L. Spiller,et al.  Sulfuric acid aerosols and HCl release in coastal atmospheres: Evidence of rapid formation of sulfuric acid particulates , 1980 .

[173]  M. Molina,et al.  Production of Cl2O2 from the self-reaction of the ClO radical , 1987 .

[174]  J. Farman,et al.  Large losses of total ozone in Antarctica reveal seasonal ClOx/NOx interaction , 1985, Nature.

[175]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  Correction to ''Control of fossil-fuel particulate black carbon and organic matter, possibly the most effective method of slowing global warming'' , 2005 .

[176]  Winston Chow,et al.  Managing Hazardous Air Pollutants: State of the Art , 1993 .

[177]  J. Logan,et al.  Global chlorine emissions from biomass burning: Reactive Chlorine Emissions Inventory , 1999 .

[178]  P. Brimblecombe The Big Smoke , 1987 .

[179]  Holger Vömel,et al.  Decreases in stratospheric water vapor after 2001: Links to changes in the tropical tropopause and the Brewer‐Dobson circulation , 2006 .

[180]  Wei Tang,et al.  Soiling patterns on a tall limestone building: Changes over 60 years , 2000 .

[181]  B. Metz IPCC special report on carbon dioxide capture and storage , 2005 .

[182]  G. F. Rodwell Lavoisier, Priestley, and the Discovery of Oxygen , 1882, Nature.

[183]  R. Duce On the source of gaseous chlorine in the marine atmosphere , 1969 .

[184]  Yoram J. Kaufman,et al.  Wind reduction by aerosol particles , 2006 .

[185]  S. Chandra,et al.  Past, present, and future modeled ozone trends with comparisons to observed trends , 1996 .

[186]  A. J. Miller,et al.  An update of observed stratospheric temperature trends , 2009 .

[187]  Y. Kaufman,et al.  Effects of black carbon content, particle size, and mixing on light absorption by aerosols from biomass burning in Brazil , 1998 .

[188]  M. Melamed,et al.  Lung cancer and exposure to tobacco smoke in the household. , 1990, The New England journal of medicine.

[189]  H. Horvath,et al.  UV-VIS-NIR spectral optical properties of soot and soot-containing aerosols , 2003 .

[190]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  Examining the temperature dependence of ethanol (E85) versus gasoline emissions on air pollution with a largely-explicit chemical mechanism , 2010 .

[191]  R. Hitzenberger,et al.  Comparisons of the measured and calculated specific absorption coefficients for urban aerosol samples in Vienna , 1993 .

[192]  D. Dockery,et al.  Long-term measurements of respirable sulfates and particles inside and outside homes , 1981 .

[193]  J. Monteith,et al.  Boundary Layer Climates. , 1979 .

[194]  K. T. Knapp,et al.  Compound forms of fossil fuel fly ash emissions. , 1980, Environmental science & technology.

[195]  T. Oke The urban energy balance , 1988 .

[196]  J. Jouzel,et al.  Climatic interpretation of the recently extended Vostok ice records , 1996 .

[197]  Nathan E. Hultman,et al.  A reactor-level analysis of busbar costs for US nuclear plants, 1970-2005 , 2007 .

[198]  David B. Kittelson,et al.  On-line measurements of diesel nanoparticle composition and volatility , 2003 .

[199]  R. B. Richardson,et al.  Radon as a causative factor in induction of myeloid leukaemia and other cancers , 1990, The Lancet.

[200]  H. Friedli,et al.  Ice core record of the 13C/12C ratio of atmospheric CO2 in the past two centuries , 1986, Nature.

[201]  J. Hill,et al.  Johann Glauber's discovery of sodium sulfate - Sal Mirabile Glauberi , 1979 .

[202]  Ilan Koren,et al.  Smoke and Pollution Aerosol Effect on Cloud Cover , 2006, Science.

[203]  D. Jacob,et al.  Fogwater chemistry in an urban atmosphere , 1983 .

[204]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  Supplying Baseload Power and Reducing Transmission Requirements by Interconnecting Wind Farms , 2007 .

[205]  D. Ceburnis,et al.  Primary submicron marine aerosol dominated by insoluble organic colloids and aggregates , 2008 .

[206]  M. Jacobson Isolating nitrated and aromatic aerosols and nitrated aromatic gases as sources of ultraviolet light absorption , 1999 .

[207]  J. Samet,et al.  Nitrogen dioxide and respiratory illnesses in infants. , 1993, The American review of respiratory disease.

[208]  K. Emanuel Increasing destructiveness of tropical cyclones over the past 30 years , 2005, Nature.

[209]  M. Talwani,et al.  Evolution of the Norwegian-Greenland Sea , 1977 .

[210]  Mark Z Jacobson,et al.  Enhancement of local air pollution by urban CO(2) domes. , 2010, Environmental science & technology.

[211]  S. Glantz,et al.  smoke sidestream smoke : more toxic than mainstream , 2005 .

[212]  D. Blake,et al.  Physical, chemical, and optical properties of regional hazes dominated by smoke in Brazil , 1998 .

[213]  J. McElroy,et al.  Creation and fate of ozone layers aloft in Southern California , 1993 .

[214]  Tsun-Jen Cheng,et al.  Global Magnitude of Reported and Unreported Mesothelioma , 2011, Environmental health perspectives.

[215]  W. John,et al.  Modes in the size distributions of atmospheric inorganic aerosol , 1990 .

[216]  B. Weare,et al.  Factors Governing Tropospheric Mean Temperature , 1976, Science.

[217]  S. Wofsy,et al.  Reductions of Antarctic ozone due to synergistic interactions of chlorine and bromine , 1986, Nature.

[218]  Jonathan I Levy,et al.  The Health Benefits of Reduced Tropospheric Ozone in California , 2006, Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association.

[219]  O. Axelson,et al.  Residential radon and lung cancer in Sweden: risk analysis accounting for random error in the exposure assessment. , 1997, Health physics.

[220]  G. E. Williams Late Precambrian glacial climate and the Earth's obliquity , 1975, Geological Magazine.

[221]  G. Cass On the relationship between sulfate air quality and visibility with examples in los angeles , 1979 .

[222]  J. Jouzel,et al.  Climate and atmospheric history of the past 420,000 years from the Vostok ice core, Antarctica , 1999, Nature.

[223]  M. Jacobson Control of fossil‐fuel particulate black carbon and organic matter, possibly the most effective method of slowing global warming , 2002 .

[224]  G. Likens Special Report: ACID PRECIPITATIONThe acidity of rain and snow falling on parts of the U.S. and Europe has been rising—for reasons that are still not entirely clear and with consequences that have yet to be well evaluated , 1976 .

[225]  P. Webster,et al.  Changes in Tropical Cyclone Number, Duration, and Intensity in a Warming Environment , 2005, Science.

[226]  J. Seinfeld,et al.  Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change , 1998 .

[227]  J. Teifke,et al.  Immunohistochemical detection of P53 overexpression in paraffin wax-embedded squamous cell carcinomas of cattle, horses, cats and dogs. , 1996, Journal of comparative pathology.

[228]  C. Sagan,et al.  Earth and Mars: Evolution of Atmospheres and Surface Temperatures , 1972, Science.

[229]  P. Sheridan,et al.  Aerosol particles in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere: Elemental composition and morphology of individual particles in northern midlatitudes , 1994 .

[230]  S. Arrhenius “On the Infl uence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Ground” (1896) , 2017, The Future of Nature.

[231]  Andrew P. Jones,et al.  Indoor air quality and health , 1999 .

[232]  R. Turco,et al.  A study of type I polar stratospheric cloud formation , 1994 .

[233]  M. Jacobson Studying the effects of calcium and magnesium on size-distributed nitrate and ammonium with EQUISOLV II , 1999 .

[234]  R. Vose,et al.  An Overview of the Global Historical Climatology Network Temperature Database , 1997 .

[235]  D. Rind,et al.  Effects of future climate change on regional air pollution episodes in the United States , 2004 .

[236]  S. Sollinger,et al.  Indoor pollution by organic emissions from textile floor coverings: Climate test chamber studies under static conditions , 1994 .

[237]  R. Turco,et al.  Heterogeneous physicochemistry of the polar ozone hole , 1989 .

[238]  James L. Repace,et al.  Measurement of fine particles and smoking activity in a statewide survey of 36 California Indian casinos , 2010, Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology.

[239]  J. McElroy,et al.  Lidar Observation of Elevated Pollution Layers over Los Angeles , 1986 .

[240]  Willett Kempton,et al.  Vehicle-to-grid power implementation: From stabilizing the grid to supporting large-scale renewable energy , 2005 .

[241]  S. Twomey The Effect of Cloud Scattering on the Absorption of Solar Radiation by Atmospheric Dust , 1972 .

[242]  G. Thurston,et al.  Associations between 1980 U.S. mortality rates and alternative measures of airborne particle concentration. , 1987, Risk analysis : an official publication of the Society for Risk Analysis.

[243]  S. Jennings Aerosol effects on climate , 1993 .

[244]  P. Cattermole,et al.  The Story of the Earth , 1985 .

[245]  G. Mie Beiträge zur Optik trüber Medien, speziell kolloidaler Metallösungen , 1908 .

[246]  Jerome O. Nriagu,et al.  A History of Global Metal Pollution , 1996, Science.

[247]  Andrew J. Kean,et al.  Temperature dependence of volatile organic compound evaporative emissions from motor vehicles , 2006 .

[248]  P. Stott,et al.  External control of 20th century temperature by natural and anthropogenic forcings. , 2000, Science.

[249]  V. A. Zubakov,et al.  Pliocene palaeoclimates: past climates as possible analogues of mid-twenty-first century climate , 1988 .

[250]  C. Pope,et al.  Health effects of particulate air pollution: time for reassessment? , 1995, Environmental health perspectives.

[251]  S. Friedlander,et al.  Size distributions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and elemental carbon. 1. Sampling, measurement methods, and source characterization. , 1994, Environmental science & technology.

[252]  M. J. Newman,et al.  Implications of Solar Evolution for the Earth's Early Atmosphere. , 1977, Science.

[253]  J. Kiviluoma,et al.  Global potential for wind-generated electricity , 2009, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[254]  I. Choi,et al.  Delayed neurologic sequelae in carbon monoxide intoxication. , 1983, Archives of neurology.

[255]  L. Wallace Correlations of Personal Exposure to Particles with Outdoor Air Measurements: A Review of Recent Studies , 2000 .

[256]  Sungmin Hong,et al.  History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice , 1996, Science.

[257]  S. Oltmans,et al.  Meteorological mechanisms for transporting O3 over the western North Atlantic Ocean: A case study for August 24–29, 1993 , 1996 .

[258]  J. Jouzel,et al.  Vostok ice core: a continuous isotope temperature record over the last climatic cycle (160,000 years) , 1987, Nature.

[259]  P. Buseck,et al.  Atmospheric tar balls: Particles from biomass and biofuel burning , 2003 .

[260]  V. Kotroni,et al.  On the Long‐Range transport of air pollutants from Europe to Africa , 1998 .

[261]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  California offshore wind energy potential , 2010 .

[262]  D. Fahey,et al.  Ozone production in the rural troposphere and the implications for regional and global ozone distributions , 1987 .

[263]  W. Sheridan Maize for biological research , 2008, Plant Molecular Biology Reporter.

[264]  D. Häder,et al.  Effects on aquatic ecosystems , 1998 .

[265]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  A Monte Carlo approach to generator portfolio planning and carbon emissions assessments of systems with large penetrations of variable renewables. , 2011 .

[266]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  Vertical mixing of commercial aviation emissions from cruise altitude to the surface , 2011 .

[267]  J. Klett,et al.  Microphysics of Clouds and Precipitation , 1978, Nature.

[268]  D. Hartel,et al.  Assessment of human exposure to nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and respirable particulates in New York inner-city residences , 1988 .

[269]  D. Etheridge,et al.  Changes in tropospheric methane between 1841 and 1978 from a high accumulation‐rate Antarctic ice core , 1992 .

[270]  P. Buseck,et al.  Structural variations in individual carbonaceous particles from an urban aerosol , 1992 .

[271]  T. Swetnam,et al.  Warming and Earlier Spring Increase Western U.S. Forest Wildfire Activity , 2006, Science.

[272]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  Power output variations of co-located offshore wind turbines and wave energy converters in California , 2010 .

[273]  R. Charlson,et al.  Optical characteristics of atmospheric aerosols , 1981 .

[274]  J. Jouzel,et al.  Extending the Vostok ice-core record of palaeoclimate to the penultimate glacial period , 1993, Nature.

[275]  Shea L. Valley Handbook of Geophysics and Space Environments , 1966 .

[276]  J. Offenberg,et al.  Aerosol size distributions of elemental and organic carbon in urban and over-water atmospheres , 2000 .

[277]  G. Masters,et al.  Exploiting Wind Versus Coal , 2001, Science.

[278]  M. Jacobson Global direct radiative forcing due to multicomponent anthropogenic and natural aerosols , 2001 .

[279]  C. F. Powers,et al.  Effects of acid precipitation. , 1982, Environmental science & technology.

[280]  S. Solomon,et al.  Response of the stratospheric temperatures and ozone to past and future increases in stratospheric humidity , 2001 .

[281]  R. Stothers The Great Tambora Eruption in 1815 and Its Aftermath , 1984, Science.

[282]  S. Miller A production of amino acids under possible primitive earth conditions. , 1953, Science.

[283]  Wallace S. Broecker,et al.  The Carbon cycle and atmospheric CO[2] : natural variations Archean to present , 1985 .

[284]  R. M. Lucas,et al.  National and regional distributions of airborne radon concentrations in U.S. homes. , 1994, Health physics.

[285]  G. Carmichael,et al.  Analysis of aerosol composition at Cheju Island, Korea, using a two-bin gas-aerosol equilibrium model , 1997 .

[286]  Makiko Sato,et al.  GISS analysis of surface temperature change , 1999 .

[287]  M. Fisher,et al.  The Sea, Volume 5: Marine Chemistry , 1974 .

[288]  S. Mackey,et al.  Stratigraphy and Glacial-Marine Sediments of the Amerasian Basin, Central Arctic Ocean. , 1980 .

[289]  Benjamin K. Sovacool,et al.  Valuing the Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Nuclear Power: A Critical Survey , 2008 .

[290]  D. Blake,et al.  Emission factors of hydrocarbons, halocarbons, trace gases and particles from biomass burning in Brazil , 1998 .

[291]  M. Jacobson Development and application of a new air pollution modeling system—II. Aerosol module structure and design , 1997 .

[292]  K. Sexton,et al.  Indoor air pollution: a public health perspective. , 1983, Science.

[293]  S. Solomon,et al.  Seismic evidence for a lower-mantle origin of the Iceland plume , 1998, Nature.

[294]  R. Hitzenberger,et al.  Modal character of atmospheric black carbon size distributions , 1996 .

[295]  J. J. Morgan,et al.  Chemical Composition of Acid Fog , 1982, Science.

[296]  M. Jacobson Investigating cloud absorption effects: Global absorption properties of black carbon, tar balls, and soil dust in clouds and aerosols , 2012 .

[297]  Gilbert M. Masters,et al.  Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems , 2004 .

[298]  Yoram J. Kaufman,et al.  Effect of Amazon smoke on cloud microphysics and albedo - analysis from satellite imagery , 1993 .

[299]  A. H. Woodcock SALT NUCLEI IN MARINE AIR AS A FUNCTION OF ALTITUDE AND WIND FORCE , 1953 .

[300]  R. E. Danielson,et al.  The Transfer of Visible Radiation through Clouds , 1969 .

[301]  Monitoring,et al.  Scientific assessment of ozone depletion: 1991 , 1992 .

[302]  Jonas Ardö,et al.  Satellite Based Estimations of Coniferous Forest Cover Changes : Krusne Hory, Czech Republic , 1997 .

[303]  I. Tang,et al.  The relative importance of atmospheric sulfates and nitrates in visibility reduction , 1981 .

[304]  R. C. Weast CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics , 1973 .

[305]  J. Meagher,et al.  The correlation of temperature and rural ozone levels in southeastern U.S.A. , 1997 .

[306]  E. R. Stephens,et al.  Recent Developments in the Study of the Organic Chemistry of the Atmosphere , 1956 .

[307]  M. Jacobson A physically‐based treatment of elemental carbon optics: Implications for global direct forcing of aerosols , 2000 .

[308]  R. McKenzie,et al.  Changes in biologically active ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface. , 1998, Photochemical & photobiological sciences : Official journal of the European Photochemistry Association and the European Society for Photobiology.

[309]  R. McKenzie,et al.  Increased summertime UV radiation in New Zealand in response to ozone loss. , 1999, Science.

[310]  L. Björn,et al.  Effects of increased solar ultraviolet radiation on terrestrial ecosystems , 1998 .

[311]  A. L. Hines Indoor Air: Quality and Control , 1993 .

[312]  E. Barron,et al.  Potential significance of land—sea distribution and surface albedo variations as a climatic forcing factor; 180 m.y. to the present , 1980 .

[313]  K. Trenberth,et al.  Spurious trends in satellite MSU temperatures from merging different satellite records , 1997, Nature.

[314]  G. Griffing Relations between the prevailing visibility, nephelometer scattering coefficient and sunphotometer turbidity coefficient , 1980 .

[315]  M. Jacobson Studying ocean acidification with conservative, stable numerical schemes for nonequilibrium air‐ocean exchange and ocean equilibrium chemistry , 2005 .

[316]  A. J. Haagen-Smit,et al.  The Application of Rubber in the Quantitative Determination of Ozone , 1951 .

[317]  M. Jacobson Effects of externally-through-internally-mixed soot inclusions within clouds and precipitation on global climate. , 2006, The journal of physical chemistry. A.

[318]  Glenn E. Shaw,et al.  Indian Ocean Experiment: An integrated analysis of the climate forcing and effects of the great Indo-Asian haze , 2001 .

[319]  A. Lacis,et al.  The influence on climate forcing of mineral aerosols from disturbed soils , 1996, Nature.

[320]  W. Nazaroff,et al.  Distribution of airborne radon-222 concentrations in U.S. homes. , 1986, Science.

[321]  R. Fairbanks A 17,000-year glacio-eustatic sea level record: influence of glacial melting rates on the Younger Dryas event and deep-ocean circulation , 1989, Nature.

[322]  R. Turco,et al.  Stratospheric Chlorine Injection by Volcanic Eruptions: HCI Scavenging and Implications for Ozone , 1993, Science.

[323]  Manfred Lenzen,et al.  Life cycle energy and greenhouse gas emissions of nuclear energy: A review , 2008 .

[324]  S. M. Liu,et al.  Characterizing Asian wind-dust transport to the Northwest Pacific Ocean. Direct measurements of the dust flux for two years , 1993 .

[325]  C. Bretherton,et al.  Comparison of Ceilometer, Satellite, and Synoptic Measurements of Boundary-Layer Cloudiness and the ECMWF Diagnostic Cloud Parameterization Scheme during ASTEX , 1995 .

[326]  R. Sepanski,et al.  TRENDS '90: A compendium of data on global change , 1991 .

[327]  S. Friedlander,et al.  Origins of aerosol sulfur size distributions in the Los Angeles basin , 1982 .

[328]  C. Cockell,et al.  An Introduction to the Earth-Life System , 2008 .

[329]  R. Viskanta,et al.  Radiative Effects of Elevated Pollutant Layers , 1977 .

[330]  M. McCormick,et al.  Stratospheric water vapor increases over the past half‐century , 2001 .

[331]  C. Sotin,et al.  Thermal and chemical convection in planetary mantles , 1995 .

[332]  M. Jacobson Effects of Soil Moisture on Temperatures, Winds, and Pollutant Concentrations in Los Angeles , 1999 .

[333]  J. Pollack,et al.  Origin and evolution of planetary atmospheres , 1980 .

[334]  Robert Frouin,et al.  Asian Dust Events of April 1998 , 2001 .

[335]  S. Nicholls The dynamics of stratocumulus: Aircraft observations and comparisons with a mixed layer model , 1984 .

[336]  Nathan Rosenberg,et al.  How the West Grew Rich , 1985 .

[337]  R. Onken,et al.  Seasonal changes in the tropical Atlantic circulation: Observation and simulation of the Guinea Dome , 1992 .

[338]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  Short-term effects of controlling fossil-fuel soot, biofuel soot and gases, and methane on climate, Arctic ice, and air pollution health , 2010 .

[339]  M. Jacobson,et al.  Nitric acid scavenging by mineral and biomass burning aerosols , 1998 .

[340]  R. Bornstein,et al.  Urban heat islands and summertime convective thunderstorms in Atlanta: three case studies , 2000 .

[341]  L. W. Alvarez,et al.  Extraterrestrial Cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction , 1980, Science.

[342]  R. Davies,et al.  Radiation and cloud processes in the atmosphere , 1992 .

[343]  Mark Z. Jacobson,et al.  On the causal link between carbon dioxide and air pollution mortality , 2008 .

[344]  R. Goody Principles of atmospheric physics and chemistry , 1995 .

[345]  W. Köppen,et al.  Handbuch der Klimatologie , 1910, Nature.

[346]  V. Foster Determination of the refractive index dispersion of liquid nitrobenzene in the visible and ultraviolet , 1992 .

[347]  R. Ulrich Solar Neutrinos and Variations in the Solar Luminosity , 1975, Science.

[348]  R. Heinsohn,et al.  Sources and Control of Air Pollution , 1998 .

[349]  Ruth Doherty,et al.  Impacts of climate change and variability on tropospheric ozone and its precursors. , 2005, Faraday discussions.

[350]  A. Oparin [The origin of life]. , 1938, Nordisk medicin.

[351]  T. Midgley Tetraethyl Lead Poison Hazards. , 1925 .

[352]  V. Ramanathan,et al.  Reduction of tropical cloudiness by soot , 2000, Science.

[353]  G. Wolff,et al.  Particulate carbon, atmospheric life cycle , 1982 .

[354]  W. Elbert,et al.  Airborne studies of aerosol emissions from savanna fires in , 1998 .

[355]  K. K. Perkins,et al.  Carbonaceous aerosol (soot) measured in the lower stratosphere during POLARIS and its role in stratospheric photochemistry , 1999 .

[356]  D. Hartmann Global Physical Climatology , 1994 .

[357]  P. Buseck,et al.  Soot and sulfate aerosol particles in the remote marine troposphere , 1999 .

[358]  M. Andreae,et al.  Emission of trace gases and aerosols from biomass burning , 2001 .

[359]  M. Bosch Lithologic tomography: From plural geophysical data to lithology estimation , 1999 .

[360]  D. Kittelson Engines and nanoparticles: a review , 1998 .

[361]  N. L. Nagda,et al.  Guidelines for monitoring indoor air quality , 1987 .

[362]  P. Jones,et al.  Uncertainty estimates in regional and global observed temperature changes: A new data set from 1850 , 2006 .

[363]  S. Harlap,et al.  Infant admissions to hospital and maternal smoking. , 1974, Lancet.

[364]  L. Wallace Personal Exposure To 25 Volatile Organic Compounds Epa's 1987 Team Study in Los Angeles, California , 1991, Toxicology and industrial health.

[365]  T. Lindvall,et al.  Indoor air quality : a comprehensive reference book , 1995 .

[366]  W. Nazaroff,et al.  Radon Reduction. (Book Reviews: Radon and Its Decay Products in Indoor Air) , 1988 .

[367]  R. Turco,et al.  Self-limiting physical and chemical effects in volcanic eruption clouds , 1989 .

[368]  Glenn De'ath,et al.  Declining Coral Calcification on the Great Barrier Reef , 2009, Science.

[369]  D. Spracklen,et al.  Interannual variations in PM2.5 due to wildfires in the Western United States. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.