Spatiotemporal Orientation Strategies of Long-Distance Migrants

Migratory birds have a number of navigational tools available for finding their way during long-distance migration. For passerines, these are known to include a magnetic compass (e.g. Wiltschko 1968; Wiltschko and Wiltschko 1972, 1995, 1996; Mouritsen 1998a), a celestial compass (e.g. Emlen 1967a,b, 1970, 1972, 1975; Schmidt-Koenig et al. 1991; Mouritsen 1998a; Mouritsen and Larsen 2001), a circannual clock (e.g. Gwinner 1986, 1996; Berthold 1973, 1991, 1998; Gwinner and Wiltschko 1978) and an inherited mean migratory direction (e.g. Berthold et al. 1992; Helbig 1996; Berthold 1999). We also know that some, if not all, birds have a map used for homing (e.g. Keeton 1973; Wallraff 1991; Able 1996; Bingman 1998). This chapter seeks to answer the question: How do migratory birds integrate the navigational information from these tools into an orientation strategy?