Progress in the preparation of magnetic nanoparticles for applications in biomedicine

This review summarizes recent advances in synthesis routes for quickly and reliably making and functionalizing magnetic nanoparticles for applications in biomedicine. We put special emphasis on describing synthetic strategies that result in the production of nanosized materials with well-defined physical and crystallochemical characteristics as well as colloidal and magnetic properties. Rather than grouping the information according to the synthetic route, we have described methods to prepare water-dispersible equiaxial magnetic nanoparticles with sizes below about 10 nm, sizes between 10 and 30 nm and sizes around the monodomain–multidomain magnetic transition. We have also described some recent examples reporting the preparation of anisometric nanoparticles as well as methods to prepare magnetic nanosized materials other than iron oxide ferrites, for example Co and Mn ferrite, FePt and manganites. Finally, we have described examples of the preparation of multicomponent systems with purely inorganic or organic–inorganic characteristics.

[1]  Roberto Cingolani,et al.  One-pot synthesis and characterization of size-controlled bimagnetic FePt-iron oxide heterodimer nanocrystals. , 2008, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[2]  Controlled clustering of superparamagnetic nanoparticles using block copolymers: design of new contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging. , 2005, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[3]  Helmuth Möhwald,et al.  Magnetic/gold nanoparticle functionalized biocompatible microcapsules with sensitivity to laser irradiation. , 2008, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[4]  Mingyuan Gao,et al.  One-Pot Reaction to Synthesize Water-Soluble Magnetite Nanocrystals , 2004 .

[5]  Joachim O. Rädler,et al.  Hydrophobic Nanocrystals Coated with an Amphiphilic Polymer Shell: A General Route to Water Soluble Nanocrystals , 2004 .

[6]  C. Serna,et al.  Structural and magnetic properties of uniform magnetite nanoparticles prepared by high temperature decomposition of organic precursors , 2006 .

[7]  J. Cheon,et al.  Shape evolution of single-crystalline iron oxide nanocrystals. , 2004, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[8]  Sangsig Kim,et al.  Sub 5 nm magnetite nanoparticles: Synthesis, microstructure, and magnetic properties , 2007 .

[9]  Hong Yang,et al.  “Pulling” Nanoparticles into Water: Phase Transfer of Oleic Acid Stabilized Monodisperse Nanoparticles into Aqueous Solutions of α-Cyclodextrin , 2003 .

[10]  W. Stöber,et al.  Controlled growth of monodisperse silica spheres in the micron size range , 1968 .

[11]  P. Tartaj,et al.  Monodisperse carbon-polymer mesoporous spheres with magnetic functionality and adjustable pore-size distribution. , 2007, Small.

[12]  William W. Yu,et al.  Synthesis of monodisperse iron oxide nanocrystals by thermal decomposition of iron carboxylate salts. , 2004, Chemical communications.

[13]  Taeghwan Hyeon,et al.  Large‐Scale Synthesis of Uniform and Crystalline Magnetite Nanoparticles Using Reverse Micelles as Nanoreactors under Reflux Conditions , 2005 .

[14]  R. Dumas,et al.  Methods for the surface functionalization of γ‐Fe2O3 nanoparticles with initiators for atom transfer radical polymerization and the formation of core–shell inorganic–polymer structures , 2005 .

[15]  T. Yao,et al.  Preparation of ferrimagnetic magnetite microspheres for in situ hyperthermic treatment of cancer. , 2005, Biomaterials.

[16]  A. Cooper,et al.  Direct coprecipitation route to monodisperse dual-functionalized magnetic iron oxide nanocrystals without size selection. , 2008, Small.

[17]  Jin-Sil Choi,et al.  In vivo magnetic resonance detection of cancer by using multifunctional magnetic nanocrystals. , 2005, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[18]  K. Edwards,et al.  Development of non-phospholipid liposomes containing a high cholesterol concentration. , 2007, Langmuir.

[19]  A. Tres,et al.  Dendritic cell uptake of iron‐based magnetic nanoparticles , 2008, Cell biology international.

[20]  Taeghwan Hyeon,et al.  Synthesis of uniform ferrimagnetic magnetite nanocubes. , 2009, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[21]  M. Misra,et al.  Double-side illuminated titania nanotubes for high volume hydrogen generation by water splitting , 2007 .

[22]  P. Singh,et al.  Virus-based nanoparticles (VNPs): platform technologies for diagnostic imaging. , 2006, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[23]  P. Tartaj,et al.  A Facile Route for the Preparation of Superparamagnetic Porous Carbons , 2006 .

[24]  Hongyou Fan,et al.  Synthesis of FePt nanocubes and their oriented self-assembly. , 2006, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[25]  M. Morales,et al.  A new method for the aqueous functionalization of superparamagnetic Fe2O3 nanoparticles. , 2008, Contrast media & molecular imaging.

[26]  P. Tartaj.  Superparamagnetic Composites: Magnetism with No Memory , 2009 .

[27]  C. O'connor,et al.  Synthesis and characterization of monodisperse ultra-thin silica-coated magnetic nanoparticles , 2008, Nanotechnology.

[28]  Young-wook Jun,et al.  The President and Society for Analytical Chemistry Gold Medallist , 1973 .

[29]  D. Nikles,et al.  Understanding mercapto ligand exchange on the surface of FePt nanoparticles. , 2006, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[30]  R. Costo,et al.  INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS PUBLISHING JOURNAL OF PHYSICS D: APPLIED PHYSICS , 2003 .

[31]  S. Ogale,et al.  Microwave Response of La 0.7 Sr 0.3 MnO 3 Nanoparticles for Heating Applications , 2007 .

[32]  Sébastien Vasseur,et al.  Lanthanum manganese perovskite nanoparticles as possible in vivo mediators for magnetic hyperthermia , 2006 .

[33]  C. O'connor,et al.  Magnetic properties of variable-sized Fe3O4 nanoparticles synthesized from non-aqueous homogeneous solutions of polyols , 2007 .

[34]  S M Moghimi,et al.  Long-circulating and target-specific nanoparticles: theory to practice. , 2001, Pharmacological reviews.

[35]  J. Santamaría,et al.  Magnetic nanoparticles for drug delivery , 2007 .

[36]  Hao Zeng,et al.  DNA-functionalized MFe2O4 (M = Fe, Co, or Mn) nanoparticles and their hybridization to DNA-functionalized surfaces. , 2005, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[37]  D. Discher,et al.  Shape effects of filaments versus spherical particles in flow and drug delivery. , 2007, Nature nanotechnology.

[38]  T. Hyeon,et al.  Direct synthesis of highly crystalline and monodisperse manganese ferrite nanocrystals , 2004 .

[39]  Y. Leconte,et al.  Continuous production of inorganic magnetic nanocomposites for biomedical applications by laser pyrolysis , 2007 .

[40]  Younan Xia,et al.  Superparamagnetic Colloids: Controlled Synthesis and Niche Applications , 2007 .

[41]  Dar-Bin Shieh,et al.  Aqueous dispersions of magnetite nanoparticles with NH3+ surfaces for magnetic manipulations of biomolecules and MRI contrast agents. , 2005, Biomaterials.

[42]  M. E. Williams,et al.  Controlling transport and chemical functionality of magnetic nanoparticles. , 2008, Accounts of chemical research.

[43]  Jordi Arbiol,et al.  Antibody‐Functionalized Hybrid Superparamagnetic Nanoparticles , 2007 .

[44]  M. Muhammed,et al.  A High‐Performance Magnetic Resonance Imaging T2 Contrast Agent , 2007 .

[45]  T. Hyeon,et al.  One-nanometer-scale size-controlled synthesis of monodisperse magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. , 2005, Angewandte Chemie.

[46]  H. Hofmann,et al.  Superparamagnetic nanoparticles for biomedical applications: Possibilities and limitations of a new drug delivery system , 2005 .

[47]  Q. Song,et al.  Shape control and associated magnetic properties of spinel cobalt ferrite nanocrystals. , 2004, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[48]  H. Möhwald,et al.  Maghemite nanoparticles protectively coated with poly(ethylene imine) and poly(ethylene oxide)-block-poly(glutamic acid). , 2006, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[49]  J. Marco,et al.  Uniform and water stable magnetite nanoparticles with diameters around the monodomain–multidomain limit , 2008 .

[50]  Jung Ho Yu,et al.  Magnetic fluorescent delivery vehicle using uniform mesoporous silica spheres embedded with monodisperse magnetic and semiconductor nanocrystals. , 2006, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[51]  Nastassja A. Lewinski,et al.  Cytotoxicity of nanoparticles. , 2008, Small.

[52]  H. Möhwald,et al.  Magnetic colloidosomes derived from nanoparticle interfacial self-assembly. , 2005, Nano letters.

[53]  Chung-Yuan Mou,et al.  Bifunctional magnetic silica nanoparticles for highly efficient human stem cell labeling. , 2007, Nano letters.

[54]  Xiaogang Peng,et al.  Size- and Shape-Controlled Magnetic (Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni) Oxide Nanocrystals via a Simple and General Approach , 2004 .

[55]  R. G. López,et al.  Synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles in bicontinuous microemulsions. Effect of surfactant concentration , 2008, Journal of Materials Science.

[56]  S. Veintemillas-Verdaguer,et al.  Core-shell iron-iron oxide nanoparticles synthesized by laser-induced pyrolysis. , 2006, Small.

[57]  J. Santamaría,et al.  Preparation of Magnetic Nanoparticles Encapsulated by an Ultrathin Silica Shell via Transformation of Magnetic Fe-MCM-41 , 2008 .

[58]  A. Datye,et al.  Synthesis and self-assembly of fcc phase FePt nanorods. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[59]  A. Hoffman,et al.  Synthesis of monodisperse biotinylated p(NIPAAm)-coated iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles and their bioconjugation to streptavidin. , 2007, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[60]  Miqin Zhang,et al.  Folic acid-PEG conjugated superparamagnetic nanoparticles for targeted cellular uptake and detection by MRI. , 2006, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A.

[62]  M. Morales,et al.  Magnetite nanoparticles: Electrochemical synthesis and characterization , 2008 .

[63]  M. Swihart,et al.  Laser-Driven Aerosol Synthesis of Nickel Nanoparticles , 2005 .

[64]  Raimon Sabaté,et al.  Preparation and characterization of extruded magnetoliposomes. , 2008, International journal of pharmaceutics.

[65]  C. Murphy,et al.  One-pot synthesis of silica-coated magnetic plasmonic tracer nanoparticles. , 2008, Chemical communications.

[66]  S. Miraux,et al.  Mesoporous maghemite-organosilica microspheres : a promising route towards multifunctional platforms for smart diagnosis and therapy , 2007 .

[67]  Manuel Ricardo Ibarra,et al.  Magnetic Nanoparticles for Cancer Therapy , 2008 .

[68]  B. Simard,et al.  Surface protected and modified iron based core-shell nanoparticles for biological applications , 2008 .

[69]  R. Pérez‐Hernández,et al.  Synthesis of magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticles without surfactants at room temperature , 2007 .

[70]  Ajay Kumar Gupta,et al.  Cytotoxicity suppression and cellular uptake enhancement of surface modified magnetic nanoparticles. , 2005, Biomaterials.

[71]  Mingyuan Gao,et al.  One‐Pot Reaction to Synthesize Biocompatible Magnetite Nanoparticles , 2005 .

[72]  J. Esquivel,et al.  A novel method to prepare magnetic nanoparticles: precipitation in bicontinuous microemulsions , 2007 .

[73]  C. Serna,et al.  Synthesis of monodisperse superparamagnetic Fe/silica nanospherical composites. , 2003, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[74]  C. Mirkin,et al.  Superparamagnetic sub-5 nm Fe@C nanoparticles: isolation, structure, magnetic properties, and directed assembly. , 2008, Nano letters.

[75]  T. Hyeon,et al.  Colloidal chemical synthesis and formation kinetics of uniformly sized nanocrystals of metals, oxides, and chalcogenides. , 2008, Accounts of chemical research.

[76]  Surfactant effects in magnetite nanoparticles of controlled size , 2006, cond-mat/0609384.

[77]  Jin Luo,et al.  Monodispersed core-shell Fe3O4@Au nanoparticles. , 2005, The journal of physical chemistry. B.

[78]  P. Tartaj,et al.  Controlled formation of porous magnetic nanorods via a liquid/liquid solvothermal method. , 2008, Chemical communications.

[79]  Jinwoo Cheon,et al.  Nanoscale size effect of magnetic nanocrystals and their utilization for cancer diagnosis via magnetic resonance imaging. , 2005, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[80]  D. Zhao,et al.  Superparamagnetic high-magnetization microspheres with an Fe3O4@SiO2 core and perpendicularly aligned mesoporous SiO2 shell for removal of microcystins. , 2008, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[81]  Shik Chi Tsang,et al.  Colloidal stable silica encapsulated nano-magnetic composite as a novel bio-catalyst carrier. , 2003, Chemical communications.

[82]  J. Marco,et al.  Effect of Nature and Particle Size on Properties of Uniform Magnetite and Maghemite Nanoparticles , 2007 .

[83]  Oliver T. Bruns,et al.  Size and surface effects on the MRI relaxivity of manganese ferrite nanoparticle contrast agents. , 2007, Nano letters.

[84]  Taeghwan Hyeon,et al.  Synthesis of monodisperse spherical nanocrystals. , 2007, Angewandte Chemie.

[85]  L. Liz‐Marzán,et al.  Water-based ferrofluids from FexPt1-x nanoparticles synthesized in organic media. , 2004, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[86]  Shouheng Sun,et al.  Recent Advances in Chemical Synthesis, Self‐Assembly, and Applications of FePt Nanoparticles , 2006 .

[87]  S. Ribeiro,et al.  Electro-precipitation of Fe3O4 nanoparticles in ethanol , 2008 .

[88]  Philippe Robert,et al.  Recent advances in iron oxide nanocrystal technology for medical imaging. , 2006, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[89]  R. Molday,et al.  Immunospecific ferromagnetic iron-dextran reagents for the labeling and magnetic separation of cells. , 1982, Journal of immunological methods.

[90]  Thommey P. Thomas,et al.  Synthesis, characterization, and intracellular uptake of carboxyl-terminated poly(amidoamine) dendrimer-stabilized iron oxide nanoparticles. , 2007, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[91]  T. Hyeon,et al.  Synthesis of hollow iron nanoframes. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[92]  P. Wust,et al.  Magnetic fluid hyperthermia (MFH): Cancer treatment with AC magnetic field induced excitation of biocompatible superparamagnetic nanoparticles , 1999 .

[93]  Jinwoo Cheon,et al.  Critical enhancements of MRI contrast and hyperthermic effects by dopant-controlled magnetic nanoparticles. , 2009, Angewandte Chemie.

[94]  J. Cheon,et al.  Hybrid Nanoparticles for Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Target‐Specific Viral Gene Delivery , 2007 .

[95]  B Gleich,et al.  Trajectory analysis for magnetic particle imaging , 2008, Physics in medicine and biology.

[96]  D. Leslie-Pelecky,et al.  Iron oxide nanoparticles for sustained delivery of anticancer agents. , 2005, Molecular pharmaceutics.

[97]  Abdelhamid Elaissari,et al.  Magnetic colloids for the generic capture of viruses. , 2005, Analytical biochemistry.

[98]  Arezou A Ghazani,et al.  Determining the size and shape dependence of gold nanoparticle uptake into mammalian cells. , 2006, Nano letters.

[99]  Jinwoo Cheon,et al.  Heterostructured magnetic nanoparticles: their versatility and high performance capabilities. , 2007, Chemical communications.

[100]  M. Correa‐Duarte,et al.  Increasing the Complexity of Magnetic Core/Shell Structured Nanocomposites for Biological Applications , 2007 .

[101]  Jaemin Kim,et al.  A general strategy for synthesizing FePt nanowires and nanorods. , 2007, Angewandte Chemie.

[102]  C. Serna,et al.  Magnetic behavior of superparamagnetic Fe nanocrystals confined inside submicron-sized spherical silica particles , 2004 .

[103]  Etienne Snoeck,et al.  Colloidal synthesis and characterization of tetrapod-shaped magnetic nanocrystals. , 2006, Nano letters.

[104]  S. Veintemillas-Verdaguer,et al.  Fe-based nanoparticulate metallic alloys as contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging. , 2005, Biomaterials.

[105]  Claire Wilhelm,et al.  The effect of magnetic targeting on the uptake of magnetic-fluid-loaded liposomes by human prostatic adenocarcinoma cells. , 2008, Biomaterials.

[106]  J. Ding,et al.  Engineering inorganic hybrid nanoparticles: tuning combination fashions of gold, platinum, and iron oxide. , 2008, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[107]  C. Serna,et al.  Direct aerosol synthesis of carboxy-functionalized iron oxide colloids displaying reversible magnetic behavior. , 2007, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[108]  P. Tartaj.  Nanomagnets-From Fundamental Physics to Biomedicine , 2006 .

[109]  Comparative study of ferrofluids based on dextran-coated iron oxide and metal nanoparticles for contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging , 2004 .

[110]  S. Haam,et al.  Smart nanoprobes for ultrasensitive detection of breast cancer via magnetic resonance imaging , 2008, Nanotechnology.

[111]  J. Marco,et al.  A Facile Synthetic Route for the Preparation of Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanorods and Nanorices with Tunable Surface Functionality , 2008 .

[112]  Taeghwan Hyeon,et al.  Wrap-bake-peel process for nanostructural transformation from beta-FeOOH nanorods to biocompatible iron oxide nanocapsules. , 2008, Nature materials.

[113]  J. Santamaría,et al.  Highly magnetic silica-coated iron nanoparticles prepared by the arc-discharge method , 2006 .

[114]  Bernhard Gleich,et al.  Tomographic imaging using the nonlinear response of magnetic particles , 2005, Nature.

[115]  M. Abe,et al.  Method for synthesizing ferrite nanoparticles ∼30 nm in diameter on neutral pH condition for biomedical applications , 2003 .

[116]  B. Narasimhan,et al.  Protein‐Mediated Synthesis of Uniform Superparamagnetic Magnetite Nanocrystals , 2007 .

[117]  W. Cai,et al.  Monodisperse water-soluble magnetite nanoparticles prepared by polyol process for high-performance magnetic resonance imaging. , 2007, Chemical communications.

[118]  M. Desco,et al.  A new method for the rapid synthesis of water stable superparamagnetic nanoparticles. , 2008, Chemistry.

[119]  Mingyuan Gao,et al.  Preparation of Biocompatible Magnetite Nanocrystals for In Vivo Magnetic Resonance Detection of Cancer , 2006 .

[120]  A. Schmidt.  Thermoresponsive magnetic colloids , 2007 .

[121]  V. Dravid,et al.  Silica encapsulation and magnetic properties of FePt nanoparticles. , 2005, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[122]  M. Grzelczak,et al.  Alignment of carbon nanotubes under low magnetic fields through attachment of magnetic nanoparticles. , 2005, The journal of physical chemistry. B.

[123]  Taeghwan Hyeon,et al.  Ultra-large-scale syntheses of monodisperse nanocrystals , 2004, Nature materials.

[124]  Hao Zeng,et al.  Size-controlled synthesis of magnetite nanoparticles. , 2002, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[125]  A. Lu,et al.  Magnetic nanoparticles: synthesis, protection, functionalization, and application. , 2007, Angewandte Chemie.

[126]  Anna Roig,et al.  Relaxometric and magnetic characterization of ultrasmall iron oxide nanoparticles with high magnetization. Evaluation as potential T1 magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents for molecular imaging. , 2007, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[127]  M. Andersson,et al.  Superparamagnetic Fe3O4SiO2 nanocomposites: enabling the tuning of both the iron oxide load and the size of the nanoparticles. , 2008, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[128]  I-Chen Chiang,et al.  Synthesis of Monodisperse FeAu Nanoparticles with Tunable Magnetic and Optical Properties , 2007 .

[129]  V. Rotello,et al.  Surface modification using cubic silsesquioxane ligands. Facile synthesis of water-soluble metal oxide nanoparticles , 2006 .

[130]  Zonghuan Lu,et al.  Magnetic switch of permeability for polyelectrolyte microcapsules embedded with Co@Au nanoparticles. , 2005, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[131]  C. Robic,et al.  Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles: synthesis, stabilization, vectorization, physicochemical characterizations, and biological applications. , 2008, Chemical reviews.

[132]  S. Lesieur,et al.  Evidence of surfactant-induced formation of transient pores in lipid bilayers by using magnetic-fluid-loaded liposomes. , 2003, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[133]  Masahiko Tani,et al.  Introduction to Terahertz Pulses , 2005 .

[134]  Y. Jeong,et al.  Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Coated with Galactose-Carrying Polymer for Hepatocyte Targeting , 2008, Journal of biomedicine & biotechnology.

[135]  Y. Leconte,et al.  Continuous production of water dispersible carbon-iron nanocomposites by laser pyrolysis: application as MRI contrasts. , 2007, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[136]  Rustem F Ismagilov,et al.  Response to shape emerges in a complex biochemical network and its simple chemical analogue. , 2007, Angewandte Chemie.

[137]  C. Serna,et al.  Advances in magnetic nanoparticles for biotechnology applications , 2005 .

[138]  P. Tartaj,et al.  Fabrication of Monodisperse Mesoporous Carbon Capsules Decorated with Ferrite Nanoparticles , 2008 .

[139]  T. He,et al.  Monodispersed Co, Ni-Ferrite Nanoparticles with Tunable Sizes: Controlled Synthesis, Magnetic Properties, and Surface Modification , 2008 .

[140]  M. Han,et al.  Quantum Couplings and Magnetic Properties of CoCrxFe2-xO4 (0 < x < 1) Spinel Ferrite Nanoparticles Synthesized with Reverse Micelle Method , 2004 .

[141]  Jin Luo,et al.  Iron oxide-gold core-shell nanoparticles and thin film assembly , 2005 .

[142]  Synthesis and characterization of FePt/Au core-shell nanoparticles , 2007, 0911.4785.

[143]  T. Osaka,et al.  Synthesis of Fe3O4 nanoparticles with various sizes and magnetic properties by controlled hydrolysis. , 2007, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[144]  K. Ng,et al.  Solid-state synthesis of monocrystalline iron oxide nanoparticle based ferrofluid suitable for magnetic resonance imaging contrast application , 2007 .

[145]  H. Möhwald,et al.  Colloidally stable amphibious nanocrystals derived from poly{[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl] methacrylate} capping. , 2005, Angewandte Chemie.

[146]  V. Cabuil,et al.  Synthèse en milieu alcalin de magnétite colloïdale : contrôle du rendement et de la taille des particules , 1987 .

[147]  T. Valdés-Solís,et al.  Synthetic Route to Nanocomposites Made Up of Inorganic Nanoparticles Confined within a Hollow Mesoporous Carbon Shell , 2007 .

[148]  M. Hájek,et al.  D-mannose-modified iron oxide nanoparticles for stem cell labeling. , 2007, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[149]  L. Liz‐Marzán,et al.  Synthesis and Characterization of Iron/Iron Oxide Core/Shell Nanocubes , 2007 .

[150]  É. Duguet,et al.  Magnetic nanoparticle design for medical diagnosis and therapy , 2004 .

[151]  Chenjie Xu,et al.  Controlled PEGylation of Monodisperse Fe3O4 Nanoparticles for Reduced Non‐Specific Uptake by Macrophage Cells , 2007 .

[152]  H. A. Therese,et al.  Fabrication of a Silica Coating on Magnetic γ-Fe2O3 Nanoparticles by an Immobilized Enzyme , 2008 .

[153]  W. Kaiser,et al.  Physical limits of hyperthermia using magnetite fine particles , 1998 .

[154]  Manuel Arruebo,et al.  Development of Magnetic Nanostructured Silica-Based Materials as Potential Vectors for Drug-Delivery Applications , 2006 .

[155]  Bing Xu,et al.  Multifunctional yolk-shell nanoparticles: a potential MRI contrast and anticancer agent. , 2008, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[156]  Sarah S. Staniland,et al.  Controlled formation of magnetite crystal by partial oxidation of ferrous hydroxide in the presence of recombinant magnetotactic bacterial protein Mms6. , 2007, Biomaterials.

[157]  C. Berry.  Possible exploitation of magnetic nanoparticle–cell interaction for biomedical applications , 2005 .

[158]  Catherine C. Berry,et al.  Functionalisation of magnetic nanoparticles for applications in biomedicine , 2003 .

[159]  Tierui Zhang,et al.  A general approach for transferring hydrophobic nanocrystals into water. , 2007, Nano letters.

[160]  M. Harris,et al.  Surface modification of magnetic nanoparticles capped by oleic acids: characterization and colloidal stability in polar solvents. , 2006, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[161]  E. Matijević,et al.  Formation of uniform spherical magnetite particles by crystallization from ferrous hydroxide gels , 1980 .

[162]  R. Hong,et al.  Synthesis, characterization and MRI application of dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles , 2008 .

[163]  S. Nie,et al.  A systematic examination of surface coatings on the optical and chemical properties of semiconductor quantum dots. , 2006, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[164]  C. O'connor,et al.  The synthesis of core–shell iron@gold nanoparticles and their characterization , 2005 .

[165]  Shouheng Sun,et al.  Dumbbell-like bifunctional Au-Fe3O4 nanoparticles. , 2005, Nano letters.

[166]  Etienne Duguet,et al.  Towards a versatile platform based on magnetic nanoparticles for in vivo applications , 2006 .

[167]  Alaaldin M. Alkilany,et al.  Chemical sensing and imaging with metallic nanorods. , 2008, Chemical communications.

[168]  J. Liu,et al.  Synthesis of FePt nanorods and nanowires by a facile method , 2008, Nanotechnology.

[169]  C. Berry,et al.  Intracellular delivery of nanoparticles via the HIV-1 tat peptide. , 2008, Nanomedicine.

[170]  Hao Zeng,et al.  Monodisperse MFe2O4 (M = Fe, Co, Mn) nanoparticles. , 2004, Journal of the American Chemical Society.