Sediment-Hosted Lead-Zinc Deposits in Earth History

Sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits can be divided into two major subtypes. The first subtype is clastic-dominated lead-zinc (CD Pb-Zn) ores, which are hosted in shale, sandstone, siltstone, or mixed clastic rocks, or occur as carbonate replacement, within a CD sedimentary rock sequence. This subtype includes deposits that have been traditionally referred to as sedimentary exhalative (SEDEX) deposits. The CD Pb-Zn deposits occur in passive margins, back-arcs and continental rifts, and sag basins, which are tectonic settings that, in some cases, are transitional into one another. The second subtype of sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits is the Mississippi Valley-type (MVT Pb-Zn) that occurs in platform carbonate sequences, typically in passive-margin tectonic settings. Considering that the redox state of sulfur is one of the major controls on the extraction, transport, and deposition of Pb and Zn at shallow crustal sites, sediment-hosted Pb-Zn ores can be considered a special rock type that recorded the oxygenation of Earth’s hydrosphere. The emergence of CD and MVT deposits in the rock record between 2.02 Ga, the age of the earliest known deposit of these ores, and 1.85 to 1.58 Ga, a major period of CD Pb-Zn mineralization in Australia and India, corresponds to a time after the Great Oxygenation Event that occurred at ca 2.4 to 1.8 Ga. Contributing to the abundance of CD deposits at ca 1.85 to 1.58 Ga was the following: (1) enhanced oxidation of sulfides in the crust that provided sulfate to the hydrosphere and Pb and Zn to sediments; (2) development of major redox and compositional gradients in the oceans; (3) first formation of significant sulfate-bearing evaporites; (4) formation of red beds and oxidized aquifers, possibly containing easily extractable Pb and Zn; (5) evolution of sulfate-reducing bacteria; and (6) formation of large and long-lived basins on stable cratons. Although MVT and CD deposits appeared for the first time in Earth history at 2.02 Ga, only CD deposits were important repositories for Pb and Zn in sediments between the Great Oxygenation Event, until after the second oxidation of the atmosphere in the late Neoproterozic. Increased oxygenation of the oceans following the second oxidation event led to an abundance of evaporites, resulting oxidized brines, and a dramatic increase in the volume of coarse-grained and permeable carbonates of the Paleozoic carbonate platforms, which host many of the great MVT deposits. The MVT deposits reached their maximum abundance during the final assembly of Pangea from Devonian into the Carboniferous. This was also a time for important CD mineral deposit formation along passive margins in evaporative belts of Pangea. Following the breakup of Pangea, a new era of MVT ores began with the onset of the assembly of the Neosupercontinent. A significant limitation on interpreting the secular distribution of the deposits is that there is no way to quantitatively evaluate the removal of deposits from the rock record through tectonic recycling. Considering that most of the sedimentary rock record has been recycled, most sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits probably have also been destroyed by subduction and erosion, or modified by metamorphism and tectonism, so that they are no longer recognizable. Thus, the uneven secular distribution of sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits reflects the genesis of these deposits, linked to Earth’s evolving tectonic and geochemical systems, as well as an unknown amount of recycling of the sedimentary rock record.

[1]  D. Groves,et al.  RECOGNITION OF THE HYDROTHERMAL FEEDER TO THE STRUCTURALLY INVERTED, GIANT BROKEN HILL DEPOSIT, NEW SOUTH WALES, AUSTRALIA , 2008 .

[2]  D. Canfield,et al.  Animal evolution, bioturbation, and the sulfate concentration of the oceans , 2009, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[3]  D. Sumner.  Carbonate precipitation and oxygen stratification in late Archean seawater as deduced from facies and stratigraphy of the Gamohaan and Frisco formations, Transvaal Supergroup, South Africa , 1997 .

[4]  F. Velasco,et al.  The Reocín zinc–lead deposit, Spain: paleomagnetic dating of a late Tertiary ore body , 2009 .

[5]  D. Hunter.  Book reviewJournal of African earth sciences: C. A. Kogbe Editor-in-Chief, Pergamon Press, 1983, 81 p., U.S. $60.00 per year , 1983 .

[6]  L. M. Walter,et al.  Na-Cl-Br systematics of fluid inclusions from Mississippi Valley-type deposits, Appalachian Basin: Constraints on solute origin and migration paths , 1996 .

[7]  B. Gulson,et al.  The Coxco Deposit; a Proterozoic mississippi valley-type deposit in the McArthur River District, Northern Territory, Australia , 1983 .

[8]  P. Southgate,et al.  Defining unconformities in Proterozoic sedimentary basins using detrital geochronology and basin analysis—An example from the Mount Isa Inlier, Australia , 2009 .

[9]  Wenbo Li,et al.  Dating of the Giant Huize Zn‐Pb Ore Field of Yunnan Province, Southwest China: Constraints from the Sm‐Nd System in Hydrothermal Calcite , 2007 .

[10]  A. G. Harris,et al.  Depositional Settings, Correlation, and Age of Carboniferous Rocks in the Western Brooks Range, Alaska , 2004 .

[11]  S. Titley.  Relationship of stratabound ores with tectonic cycles of the phanerozoic and proterozoic , 1993 .

[12]  H. Schwarcz,et al.  Carbon and sulfur isotope evidence for in situ reduction of sulfate, Nanisivik lead-zinc deposits, Northwest Territories, Baffin Island, Canada , 1990 .

[13]  V. Khiltova,et al.  Chapter 16 Yenisey fold belt , 1997 .

[14]  D. Symons,et al.  Paleomagnetism of Late Paleozoic Strata and Mineralization in the Tri-State Lead-Zinc Ore District , 2005 .

[15]  F. Donath,et al.  Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Science , 1975 .

[16]  S. Walters,et al.  Geology and mineralization of the Cannington Ag-Pb-Zn deposit; an example of Broken Hill-type mineralization in the eastern succession, Mount Isa Inlier, Australia , 1998 .

[17]  K. Kelley,et al.  The Anarraaq Zn-Pb-Ag and Barite Deposit, Northern Alaska: Evidence for Replacement of Carbonate by Barite and Sulfides , 2004 .

[18]  David A. Banks,et al.  The Paleoproterozoic carbonate-hosted Pering Zn–Pb deposit, South Africa. II: fluid inclusion, fluid chemistry and stable isotope constraints , 2005 .

[19]  John K. Warren,et al.  Evaporites : sediments, resources and hydrocarbons , 2006 .

[20]  T. Zegers,et al.  Late Carboniferous to Permian remagnetization of Devonian limestones in the Ardennes: Role of temperature, fluids, and deformation , 2003 .

[21]  D. Moore,et al.  Geologic setting and genesis of the Red Dog zinc-lead-silver deposit, western Brooks Range, Alaska , 1986 .

[22]  M. Reich,et al.  Precambrian Mississippi Valley–type deposits: Relation to changes in composition of the hydrosphere and atmosphere , 2006 .

[23]  H. D. Holland,et al.  100th anniversary special paper: Sedimentary mineral deposits and the evolution of earth's near-surface environments , 2005 .

[24]  S. Bull,et al.  The Kamarga deposit: a large, low grade, stratabound zinc resource in the Proterozoic 'Carpentaria Zinc Belt' of northern Australia , 1999 .

[25]  R. Creaser,et al.  Re-Os sulfide geochronology of the Red Dog sediment-hosted Zn-Pb-Ag deposit, Brooks Range, Alaska , 2004 .

[26]  D. Symons,et al.  Paleomagnetic and mineral magnetic constraints on Zn-Pb ore genesis in the Pend Oreille Mine, Metaline district, Washington, USA , 2007 .

[27]  Stuart W. Bull,et al.  The Importance of Oxidized Brines for the Formation of Australian Proterozoic Stratiform Sediment-Hosted Pb-Zn (Sedex) Deposits , 2000 .

[28]  T. H. Giordano.  Transport of Pb and Zn by carboxylate complexes in basinal ore fluids and related petroleum-field brines at 100°C: the influence of pH and oxygen fugacity , 2002, Geochemical transactions.

[29]  D. Symons,et al.  A Tertiary age from paleomagnetism for mississippi valley-type zinc-lead mineralization in Upper Silesia, Poland , 1995 .

[30]  D. Groves,et al.  100th Anniversary Special Paper: Secular Changes in Global Tectonic Processes and Their Influence on the Temporal Distribution of Gold-Bearing Mineral Deposits , 2005 .

[31]  J. F. Robertson.  Geology of the lead-zinc deposits in the Municipio de Januaria, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil , 1963 .

[32]  S. Elming,et al.  Palaeomagnetic configuration of continents during the Proterozoic , 2003 .

[33]  J. Kyle,et al.  Origin of zn-pb-ag sulfide mineralization within upper proterozoic phosphate-rich carbonate strata, irecê basin, bahia, brazil , 1997 .

[34]  I. Hutcheon,et al.  Geochemistry, mineralogy, and geology of the Jason Pb-Zn deposits, Macmillan Pass, Yukon, Canada , 1985 .

[35]  E. C. Andrews.  The geology of the Broken Hill district , 1922 .

[36]  P. Cloud.  A working model of the primitive Earth , 1972 .

[37]  J. Whelan,et al.  The Balmat-Edwards zinc-lead deposits; synsedimentary ore from mississippi valley-type fluids , 1984 .

[38]  J. Gutzmer.  The Paleoproterozoic carbonate-hosted Pering Zn–Pb deposit, South Africa: I. Styles of brecciation and mineralization , 2005 .

[39]  Sergei A. Pisarevsky,et al.  Compilation of Mineral Resource Data for Mississippi Valley-Type and Clastic-Dominated Sediment-Hosted Lead-Zinc Deposits , 2009 .

[40]  S. Golding,et al.  Zinc Deposits and Related Mineralization of the Burketown Mineral Field, Including the World-Class Century Deposit, Northern Australia: Fluid Inclusion and Stable Isotope Evidence for Basin Fluid Sources , 2006 .

[41]  J. Domagala,et al.  Chronostratigraphic basin framework for Palaeoproterozoic rocks (1730–1575 Ma) in northern Australia and implications for base‐metal mineralisation , 2000 .

[42]  A. Knoll,et al.  Proterozoic Ocean Chemistry and Evolution: A Bioinorganic Bridge? , 2002, Science.

[43]  B. Cousens,et al.  Geologic and Geochronologic Constraints on the Timing of Mineralization at the Nanisivik Zinc-Lead Mississippi Valley-Type Deposit, Northern Baffin Island, Nunavut, Canada , 2004 .

[44]  P. Southgate,et al.  Syn- and post-extensional tectonic activity in the Palaeoproterozoic sequences of Broken Hill and Mount Isa and its bearing on reconstructions of Rodinia , 2008 .

[45]  M. Brown,et al.  Characteristic thermal regimes of plate tectonics and their metamorphic imprint throughout Earth history: When did Earth first adopt a plate tectonics mode of behavior , 2008 .

[46]  J. B. Maynard,et al.  Bedded barite deposits in the United States, Canada, Germany, and China; two major types based on tectonic setting , 1991 .

[47]  E. S. Bastin.  Theories of Formation of Ore Deposits , 1939 .

[48]  I. Scrimgeour,et al.  A revised Palaeoproterozoic chronostratigraphy for the Pine Creek Orogen, northern Australia: Evidence from SHRIMP U–Pb zircon geochronology , 2008 .

[49]  K. Karlstrom,et al.  The Yavapai-Mazatzal crustal boundary in the Southern Rocky Mountains , 1999 .

[50]  P. Muchez,et al.  Carbonate-Hosted Zn-Pb Deposits in Upper Silesia, Poland: Origin and Evolution of Mineralizing Fluids and Constraints on Genetic Models , 2003 .

[51]  G. de Marsily,et al.  Infiltration of Late Palaeozoic evaporative brines in the Reelfoot rift: a possible salt source for Illinois basin formation waters and MVT mineralizing fluids , 2001, Petroleum Geoscience.

[52]  C. Meyer.  Ore Deposits as Guides to Geologic History of the Earth , 1988 .

[53]  M. J. Jackson,et al.  Constraining sequence stratigraphy in north Australian basins: SHRIMP U–Pb zircon geochronology between Mt Isa and McArthur River , 2000 .

[54]  S. Pehrsson,et al.  The Geology and Metallogeny of Volcanic-Hosted Massive Sulfide Deposits: Variations through Geologic Time and with Tectonic Setting , 2010 .

[55]  Bruce R. Doe,et al.  Lead and sulfur isotope investigation of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks from the southern Midcontinent of the United States; implications for paleohydrology and ore genesis of the Southeast Missouri lead belts , 1995 .

[56]  Lee R. Kump,et al.  The rise of atmospheric oxygen , 2008, Nature.

[57]  D. Sverjensky.  Oil field brines as ore-forming solutions , 1984 .

[58]  S. Harlan,et al.  Long-lived (1.8-1.0 Ga) convergent orogen in southern Laurentia, its extensions to Australia and Baltica, and implications for refining Rodinia , 2001 .

[59]  D. Canfield,et al.  Connections between Sulfur Cycle Evolution, Sulfur Isotopes, Sediments, and Base Metal Sulfide Deposits , 2010 .

[60]  W. P. Pratt.  Mississippi Valley–type lead-zinc deposits , 1984 .

[61]  D. Groves,et al.  Supercontinent cycles and the distribution of metal deposits through time , 1992 .

[62]  A. Crawford,et al.  A magmatic-hydrothermal origin for the giant broken hill Pb–Zn deposit , 2006 .

[63]  P. Betts,et al.  Evolution of the Australian lithosphere , 2002 .

[64]  J. Pearce,et al.  The Geochemistry of the Lower Proterozoic Willyama Complex Volcanics, Broken Hill Block, New South Wales , 1987, Geological Society, London, Special Publications.

[65]  H. Coetzee,et al.  The timing and isotopic character of regional hydrothermal alteration and associated epigenetic mineralization in the western sector of the Kaapvaal Craton (South Africa) , 2004 .

[66]  J. Gutzmer,et al.  Ancient sub-seafloor alteration of basaltic andesites of the Ongeluk Formation, South Africa: implications for the chemistry of Paleoproterozoic seawater , 2003 .

[67]  A. B. Carpenter,et al.  Preliminary Report on the Origin and Chemical Evolution of Lead-and Zinc-Rich Oil Field Brines in Central Mississippi , 1974 .

[68]  Y. Kharaka,et al.  Deep Fluids in the Continents: I. Sedimentary Basins , 2003 .

[69]  K. Kelley,et al.  A Special Issue Devoted to Barite and Zn-Pb-Ag Deposits in the Red Dog District, Western Brooks Range, Northern Alaska , 2004 .

[70]  M. Jackson,et al.  Stratigraphic framework for the Leichhardt and Calvert Superbasins: Review and correlations of the pre‐ 1700 Ma successions between Mt Isa and McArthur River , 2000 .

[71]  C. Scotese,et al.  A review of tectonic models for the evolution of the Canada Basin , 1990 .

[72]  D. Canfield,et al.  Late-Neoproterozoic Deep-Ocean Oxygenation and the Rise of Animal Life , 2007, Science.

[73]  M. Hannington,et al.  Classification of Volcanic-Associated Massive Sulfide Deposits Based on Host-Rock Composition , 1997 .

[74]  R. Berry,et al.  Proterozoic Australia–Western United States (AUSWUS) fit between Laurentia and Australia , 2000 .

[75]  J. Gutzmer,et al.  Mineral chemistry of sphalerite and galena from Pb-Zn mineralization hosted by the Transvaal Supergroup in Griqualand West, South Africa , 2004 .

[76]  J. Grotzinger,et al.  Precambrian Carbonates: Evolution of Understanding , 2000 .

[77]  D. Symons,et al.  Paleomagnetic dating of Upper Mississippi Valley zinc-lead mineralisation, WI, USA , 2004 .

[78]  B. Nesbitt,et al.  A fluid inclusion and stable-isotope study of the Tom Ba-Pb-Zn deposit, Yukon Territory, Canada , 1989 .

[79]  A. Nutman,et al.  Discussion on detachment faulting and bimodal magmatism in the Palaeoproterozoic Willyama Supergroup, south-central Australia: keys to recognition of a multiply deformed Precambrian metamorphic core complex , 2005, Journal of the Geological Society.

[80]  John V. Wright,et al.  Geology and origin of shale-hosted Zn-Pb-Ag mineralization at the Century Deposit, Northwest Queensland, Australia , 1998 .

[81]  G. Shields.  A normalised seawater strontium isotope curve: possible implications for Neoproterozoic-Cambrian weathering rates and the further oxygenation of the Earth , 2007 .

[82]  S. Pisarevsky.  New edition of the Global Paleomagnetic Database , 2005 .

[83]  D. P. Elston,et al.  Tightening the Belt: Paleomagnetic-stratigraphic constraints on deposition, correlation, and deformation of the Middle Proterozoic (ca. 1.4 Ga) Belt-Purcell Supergroup, United States and Canada , 2002 .

[84]  K. Kelley,et al.  Sulfur and Oxygen Isotopes in Barite Deposits of the Western Brooks Range, Alaska, and Implications for the Origin of the Red Dog Massive Sulfide Deposits , 2004 .

[85]  G. Anderson.  The Hydrothermal Transport and Deposition of Galena and Sphalerite Near 100 degrees C , 1973 .

[86]  D. Groves,et al.  Secular Changes in Global Tectonic Processes and Their Influence on the Temporal Distribution of Gold-Bearing Mineral Deposits , 2005 .

[87]  T. Jeffries,et al.  Geochemistry and Evolution of Mississippi Valley-Type Mineralizing Brines from the Tri-State and Northern Arkansas Districts Determined by LA-ICP-MS Microanalysis of Fluid Inclusions , 2008 .

[88]  R. Hutchinson.  Mineral Deposits and Metallogeny: Indicators of Earth’s Evolution , 1992 .

[89]  M. Villeneuve,et al.  Provenance of the Mesoproterozoic (1.45 Ga) Belt basin (western North America): Another piece in the pre-Rodinia paleogeographic puzzle , 2003 .

[90]  D. Sangster.  Mississippi Valley-type and sedex lead-zinc deposits : a comparative examination , 1990 .

[91]  D. Leach,et al.  Tectonic controls of Mississippi Valley-type lead–zinc mineralization in orogenic forelands , 2003 .

[92]  P. Bauer,et al.  The age of proterozoic orogenesis in New Mexico, U.S.A. , 1994 .

[93]  W. J. Stroud,et al.  The early Proterozoic Willyama supergroup: Stratigraphic subdivision and interpretation of high to low‐grade metamorphic rocks in the Broken Hill Block, New South Wales , 1983 .

[94]  R. Garrels,et al.  Sedimentary Rock Types: Relative Proportions as a Function of Geological Time , 1969, Science.

[95]  H. Sinclair.  FLYSCH TO MOLASSE TRANSITION IN PERIPHERAL FORELAND BASINS : THE ROLE OF THE PASSIVE MARGIN VERSUS SLAB BREAKOFF , 1997 .

[96]  W. Preiss,et al.  Understanding the 1720-1640Ma Palaeoproterozoic Willyama Supergroup, Curnamona Province, Southeastern Australia: Implications for tectonics, basin evolution and ore genesis , 2008 .

[97]  G. Plumlee,et al.  Chemical Reaction Path Modeling Type Pb-Zn Deposits of the of Ore Deposition in Mississippi Valley- Ozark Region, U.S. Midcontinent , 1994 .

[98]  G. Logan,et al.  Barite, BIFs and bugs: evidence for the evolution of the Earth’s early hydrosphere , 2004 .

[99]  J. Dewey.  Episodicity, sequence and style at convergent plate boundaries , 1980 .

[100]  D. Symons,et al.  Paleomagnetism of the Red Dog Zn-Pb Massive Sulfide Deposit in Northern Alaska , 2004 .

[101]  W. Goodfellow,et al.  Zonation of Chalcophile Elements About the Howard'S Pass (Xy) Zn-Pb Deposit, Selwyn Basin, Yukon , 1983 .

[102]  S. Gardoll,et al.  The distribution of SEDEX Pb-Zn deposits through Earth history , 2005 .

[103]  S. L. Jansen,et al.  Mineralization through geologic time; recycling perspective , 1989 .

[104]  L. Ailleres,et al.  Synthesis of the proterozoic evolution of the Mt Isa Inlier , 2006 .

[105]  J. Meert.  Paleomagnetic Evidence for a Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Supercontinent Columbia , 2002 .

[106]  M. Hand,et al.  Tectonic setting and provenance of the Paleoproterozoic Willyama Supergroup, Curnamona Province, Australia: Geochemical and Nd isotopic constraints on contrasting source terrain components , 2008 .

[107]  J. Logan,et al.  U–Pb zircon age constraint for late Neoproterozoic rifting and initiation of the lower Paleozoic passive margin of western Laurentia , 2002 .

[108]  D. Canfield,et al.  The evolution of the sulfur cycle , 1999 .

[109]  M. Santosh,et al.  Configuration of Columbia, a Mesoproterozoic Supercontinent , 2002 .

[110]  G. de Marsily,et al.  Mississippi Valley-type lead–zinc deposits through geological time: implications from recent age-dating research , 2001 .

[111]  P. Muchez,et al.  Multiple origin of the ‘Kniest feeder zone’ of the stratiform Zn–Pb–Cu ore deposit of Rammelsberg, Germany , 2006 .

[112]  Zheng Ming-hua,et al.  Ore genesis of the Daliangzi Pb-Zn deposit in Sichuan, China , 1991 .

[113]  H. D. Holland.  Why the atmosphere became oxygenated: A proposal , 2009 .

[114]  D. Large,et al.  The Rammelsberg massive sulphide Cu-Zn-Pb-Ba-Deposit, Germany: an example of sediment-hosted, massive sulphide mineralisation , 1999 .

[115]  Minghua Zheng,et al.  Metallogenic mechanism of the Tianbaoshan Pb-Zn deposit, Sichuan , 2000 .

[116]  K. Condie.  Episodic continental growth models: Afterthoughts and extensions , 2000 .

[117]  Linda C. Kah,et al.  Proterozoic sedimentary exhalative (SEDEX) deposits and links to evolving global ocean chemistry , 2006 .

[118]  D. Groves,et al.  Orogenic gold and geologic time: a global synthesis , 2001 .

[119]  D. D. Vleeschouwer,et al.  Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs , 2010 .

[120]  G. W. Lamplugh,et al.  The Geological Society of London , 1961, Nature.

[121]  F. Mackenzie,et al.  Evolution of sedimentary rocks , 1971 .

[122]  San-zhong Li,et al.  A Paleo-Mesoproterozoic supercontinent: assembly, growth and breakup , 2004 .

[123]  E. Spooner,et al.  A Review of Fluid Inclusion Temperatures and Salinities in Mississippi Valley-type Zn-Pb Deposits: Identifying Thresholds for Metal Transport , 2002 .

[124]  W. Reimold,et al.  A 2.023 Ga age for the Vredefort impact event and a first report of shock metamorphosed zircons in pseudotachylitic breccias and Granophyre , 1996 .

[125]  Alexander A. Pavlov,et al.  A Hydrogen-Rich Early Earth Atmosphere , 2005, Science.

[126]  G. Garven,et al.  Sediment-hosted lead-zinc deposits: A global perspective , 2005 .

[127]  S. Maske,et al.  Mineral deposits of Southern Africa , 1986 .

[128]  L. P. Knauth,et al.  Temperature and salinity history of the Precambrian ocean: implications for the course of microbial evolution , 2005 .

[129]  G. Anderson.  Precipitation of Mississippi Valley-type ores , 1975 .

[130]  T. Jeffries,et al.  Anomalously Metal-Rich Fluids Form Hydrothermal Ore Deposits , 2009, Science.

[131]  M. Palmer,et al.  Sm-Nd dating of the giant Sullivan Pb-Zn-Ag deposit, British Columbia , 2000 .

[132]  K. Hoffmann,et al.  Two or four Neoproterozoic glaciations , 1998 .

[133]  M. Schidlowski,et al.  Environmental Evolution of the Archean-early Proterozoic Earth , 1983 .

[134]  D. Close,et al.  High-T granulites and polymetamorphism in the southern Arunta Region, central Australia: Evidence for a 1.64 Ga accretional event , 2005 .

[135]  A. Misi.  Geological and Isotopic Constraints on the Metallogenic Evolution of the Proterozoic Sediment-Hosted Pb-Zn (Ag) Deposits of Brazil , 1999 .

[136]  D. Groves,et al.  Controls on the heterogeneous distribution of mineral deposits through time , 2005, Geological Society, London, Special Publications.

[137]  Susan L. Drieberg.  The magmatic-hydrothermal architecture of the Archean Volcanic Massive Sulfide (VMS) System at Panorama, Pilbara, Western Australia , 2003 .

[138]  W. Kidd,et al.  Flexural extension of the upper continental crust in collisional foredeeps , 1991 .

[139]  Lucy H. Chapman,et al.  Geology and Mineralization Styles of the George Fisher Zn-Pb-Ag Deposit, Mount Isa, Australia , 2004 .

[140]  S. Pisarevsky,et al.  Siberia and Rodinia , 2001 .

[141]  J. Veizer.  Solid Earth as a Recycling System: Temporal Dimensions of Global Tectonics , 1988 .

[142]  G. Plumlee,et al.  Chemical reaction path modeling of ore deposition in mississippi valley-type Pb-Zn deposits of the Ozark region, U.S. Midcontinent , 1994 .

[143]  Halverson,et al.  A neoproterozoic snowball earth , 1998, Science.

[144]  K. Condie.  Earth as an Evolving Planetary System , 2004 .

[145]  D. Evans.  Proterozoic low orbital obliquity and axial-dipolar geomagnetic field from evaporite palaeolatitudes , 2006, Nature.

[146]  Социальная педагогика,et al.  Society for Sedimentary Geology , 2010 .

[147]  P. Betts,et al.  Tectonic Environment of Shale-Hosted Massive Sulfide Pb-Zn-Ag Deposits of Proterozoic Northeastern Australia , 2003 .

[148]  D. Cooke,et al.  K-metasomatism and base metal depletion in volcanic rocks from the McArthur Basin, Northern Territory; implications for base metal mineralization , 1998 .

[149]  K. Konhauser,et al.  Banded iron formations , 2011 .

[150]  T. Beardsmore,et al.  The Maronan Supergroup: an inferred early volcanosedimentary rift sequence in the Mount Isa Inlier, and its implications for ensialic rifting in the Middle Proterozoic of northwest Queensland , 1988 .

[151]  W. F. Cannon,et al.  Extraterrestrial demise of banded iron formations 1.85 billion years ago , 2009 .

[152]  P. Betts,et al.  Comparison of the ‘strike‐slip’ versus the ‘episodic rift‐sag’ models for the origin of the Isa Superbasin , 2001 .

[153]  O. Catuneanu,et al.  An introduction to Precambrian basins: their characteristics and genesis , 2001 .

[154]  P. Southgate,et al.  New SHRIMP geochronology for the Western Fold Belt of the Mt Isa Inlier: developing a 1800 – 1650 Ma event framework , 2006 .

[155]  M. Duane,et al.  Focused fluid flow and Ozark Mississippi Valley-type deposits , 1990 .

[156]  L. Wyborn,et al.  Australian Zn-Pb-Ag Ore-Forming Systems: A Review and Analysis , 2006 .

[157]  A. Nutman,et al.  Evidence for multiple Palaeoproterozoic thermal events and magmatism adjacent to the Broken Hill PbZnAg orebody, Australia , 1998 .

[158]  W. Ridley,et al.  Textural, Compositional, and Sulfur Isotope Variations of Sulfide Minerals in the Red Dog Zn-Pb-Ag Deposits, Brooks Range, Alaska: Implications for Ore Formation , 2004 .

[159]  J. Grotzinger.  Facies and Evolution of Precambrian Carbonate Depositional Systems: Emergence of the Modern Platform Archetype , 1989 .

[160]  R. Olson.  Genesis of paleokarst and strata-bound zinc-lead sulfide deposits in a Proterozoic dolostone, northern Baffin Island, Canada , 1984 .

[161]  Robert C. Haydon,et al.  The stratigraphic setting of Pb-Zn-Ag mineralization at Broken Hill , 1987 .

[162]  M. Idnurm.  Towards a high resolution Late Palaeoproterozoic ‐ earliest Mesoproterozoic apparent polar wander path for northern Australia , 2000 .

[163]  Wenbo Li,et al.  Rb-Sr isotopic dating of sphalerite from the giant Huize Zn-Pb ore field, Yunnan Province, Southwestern China , 2009 .

[164]  B. Stevens,et al.  Correlation of Olary and Broken Hill Domains, Curnamona Province: Possible Relationship to Mount Isa and Other North Australian Pb-Zn-Ag-Bearing Successions , 2005 .

[165]  R. Voo.  Paleomagnetism of the Atlantic, Tethys and Iapetus Oceans: References , 1993 .

[166]  D. Canfield.  The evolution of the Earth surface sulfur reservoir , 2004 .

[167]  D. Groves,et al.  Rotund versus skinny orogens: Well-nourished or malnourished gold? , 2001 .

[168]  L. E. Young.  A Geologic Framework for Mineralization in the Western Brooks Range, Alaska , 2004 .

[169]  Cooke,et al.  Controls on the formation of giant stratiform sediment-hosted Zn-Pb-Ag deposits: with particular reference to the north Australian Proterozoic , 2002 .

[170]  P. Betts,et al.  Far-field continental backarc setting for the 1.80-1.67 Ga basins of northeastern Australia , 2002 .

[171]  A. Lyon,et al.  Origin of the Red Dog Zn-Pb-Ag Deposits, Brooks Range, Alaska: Evidence from Regional Pb and Sr Isotope Sources , 2004 .

[172]  C. Koeberl,et al.  Estimating Duration and Intensity of Neoproterozoic Snowball Glaciations from Ir Anomalies , 2005, Science.

[173]  K. Kelley,et al.  Nature of Hydrothermal Fluids at the Shale-Hosted Red Dog Zn-Pb-Ag Deposits, Brooks Range, Alaska , 2004 .

[174]  D. Symons,et al.  Paleomagnetism of the Fort Knox Stock, Alaska, and rotation of the Yukon–Tanana terrane after 92.5 Ma , 2006 .

[175]  David G. Edgerton.  Reconstruction of the Red Dog Zn–Pb–Ba orebody, Alaska: implications for the vent environment during the mineralizing event , 1997 .

[176]  J. Chesley,et al.  Discussion of “Tectonic controls of Mississippi Valley-type lead-zinc mineralization in orogenic forelands” by D.C. Bradley and D.L. Leach , 2004 .

[177]  H. D. Holland,et al.  Paleosols and the evolution of atmospheric oxygen: a critical review. , 1998, American journal of science.

[178]  R. Page,et al.  Aspects of geochronology and crustal evolution in the Eastern Fold Belt, Mt Isa Inlier∗ , 1998 .

[179]  B. Yardley.  100th Anniversary Special Paper: Metal Concentrations in Crustal Fluids and Their Relationship to OreFormation , 2005 .

[180]  J. Gemmell,et al.  Genesis of the Aguilar zinc-lead-silver deposit, Argentina; contact metasomatic vs. sedimentary exhalative , 1992 .

[181]  W. Goodfellow,et al.  Anoxic stratified oceans as a source of sulphur in sediment-hosted stratiform ZnPb deposits (Selwyn Basin, Yukon, Canada) , 1987 .

[182]  V. Lagneau,et al.  Precipitation of lead–zinc ores in the Mississippi Valley‐type deposit at Trèves, Cévennes region of southern France , 2006 .

[183]  M. Schaefer.  Paleoproterozoic Mississippi Valley-type Pb-Zn deposits of the Ghaap group, Transvaal supergroup in Griqualand West, South Africa , 2009 .

[184]  D. Symons.  Paleomagnetism of the HYC Zn-Pb SEDEX Deposit, Australia: Evidence of An Epigenetic Origin , 2007 .

[185]  D. Bradley.  Passive margins through earth history , 2008 .