West Nile virus: a reemerging global pathogen.

[Volgograd], 942 cases; United States, 62 cases in 1999 and 21 in 2000; Israel, 2 cases in 1999 and 417 in 2000); and 3) high avian death rates accompanying the human outbreaks, in outbreaks in Israel and the United States. Recent outbreaks of WN virus have been accompanied by an apparent evolution of a new WN virus variant. WN virus can be divided genetically into two lineages. Only members of lineage 1 WN viruses have been associated with clinical human encephalitis. Lineage 1 WN viruses have been isolated from Africa, India, Europe, Asia, and North America. Lineage 2 WN viruses are maintained in enzootic foci in Africa and have not been associated with clinical human encephalitis. The close genetic relationship between WN virus isolates from Israel and New York suggests that the virus was imported into North America from the Middle East. The means of its introduction (infected bird, mosquito, human, or another vertebrate host) will likely remain Rev Biomed 2001; 12:208-216.

[1]  C Cernescu,et al.  West Nile encephalitis epidemic in southeastern Romania , 1998, The Lancet.

[2]  Randall S. Nelson,et al.  West Nile virus surveillance in Connecticut in 2000: an intense epizootic without high risk for severe human disease. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[3]  T. Briese,et al.  Detection of West Nile virus sequences in cerebrospinal fluid , 2000, The Lancet.

[4]  J. P. Durand,et al.  West Nile outbreak in horses in southern France, 2000: the return after 35 years. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[5]  J. Alexander,et al.  Risk factors for West Nile virus infection and meningoencephalitis, Romania, 1996. , 1999, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[6]  E. Mendelson,et al.  Isolation and characterization of West Nile virus from the blood of viremic patients during the 2000 outbreak in Israel. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[7]  J. Roehrig,et al.  Rapid Detection of West Nile Virus from Human Clinical Specimens, Field-Collected Mosquitoes, and Avian Samples by a TaqMan Reverse Transcriptase-PCR Assay , 2000, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[8]  S. Ritchie,et al.  Arboviruses in the Australian region, 1990 to 1998. , 1998, Communicable diseases intelligence.

[9]  F. Murphy,et al.  Togaviridae and Flaviviridae , 1987 .

[10]  L. Kramer,et al.  West Nile virus infection in mosquitoes, birds, horses, and humans, Staten Island, New York, 2000. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[11]  D. Gubler,et al.  Dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever in the Americas. , 1987, Puerto Rico health sciences journal.

[12]  P Reiter,et al.  Climate change and mosquito-borne disease. , 2001, Environmental health perspectives.

[13]  T. Hadfield.  CLINICAL VIROLOGY MANUAL , 1995 .

[14]  Z. Hubálek,et al.  West Nile fever--a reemerging mosquito-borne viral disease in Europe. , 1999, Emerging infectious diseases.

[15]  T. P. Hughes,et al.  A neurotropic virus isolated from the blood of a native of Uganda , 1940 .

[16]  L. Kramer,et al.  Dead crow densities and human cases of West Nile virus, New York State, 2000. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[17]  Randall S. Nelson,et al.  Update: West Nile Virus activity - northeastern United States, 2000. , 2000 .

[18]  Update: West Nile Virus activity--eastern United States, 2000. , 2000, Canada communicable disease report = Releve des maladies transmissibles au Canada.

[19]  A. Korczyn,et al.  West Nile encephalitis in Israel, 1999: the New York connection. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[20]  B. Nosal,et al.  West Nile Virus , 2016, Methods in Molecular Biology.

[21]  V. Deubel,et al.  Extensive nucleotide changes and deletions within the envelope glycoprotein gene of Euro-African West Nile viruses. , 1997, The Journal of general virology.

[22]  D. Asnis,et al.  The West Nile Virus outbreak of 1999 in New York: the Flushing Hospital experience. , 2000, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[23]  S. Pitlik,et al.  Clinical characteristics of the West Nile fever outbreak, Israel, 2000. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[24]  S. Schlesinger,et al.  The Togaviridae and Flaviviridae , 1986, The Viruses.

[25]  Max Sussman,et al.  Topley and Wilson's Microbiology and Microbial infections , 1998 .

[26]  G. Ebel,et al.  Partial genetic characterization of West Nile virus strains, New York State, 2000. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[27]  J. Anderson,et al.  Mosquito surveillance for West Nile virus in Connecticut, 2000: isolation from Culex pipiens, Cx. restuans, Cx. salinarius, and Culiseta melanura. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[28]  D. Gubler.  The global pandemic of dengue/dengue haemorrhagic fever: current status and prospects for the future. , 1998, Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore.

[29]  F. Mostashari,et al.  Serosurveys for West Nile virus infection--New York and Connecticut counties, 2000. , 2001, MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report.

[30]  D. Gubler,et al.  Dengue/dengue hemorrhagic fever: the emergence of a global health problem. , 1995, Emerging infectious diseases.

[31]  Daniel R. O’Leary,et al.  The outbreak of West Nile virus infection in the New York City area in 1999. , 2001, The New England journal of medicine.

[32]  G. Kuno,et al.  A case of natural concurrent human infection with two dengue viruses. , 1985, The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene.

[33]  S. Ritchie,et al.  An outbreak of Japanese encephalitis in the Torres Strait, Australia, 1995 , 1996, Medical Journal of Australia.

[34]  J. Roehrig,et al.  Widespread West Nile virus activity, eastern United States, 2000. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[35]  R. Lanciotti,et al.  Entomologic and avian investigations of an epidemic of West Nile fever in Romania in 1996, with serologic and molecular characterization of a virus isolate from mosquitoes. , 1999, The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene.

[36]  Gubler Dj.  The global pandemic of dengue/dengue haemorrhagic fever: current status and prospects for the future. , 1998 .

[37]  J. L. Montagne,et al.  Emerging infectious diseases. , 1994, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[38]  O. V. Platonova,et al.  Outbreak of West Nile virus infection, Volgograd Region, Russia, 1999. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[39]  D. Haburchak,et al.  Topley and Wilson's Microbiology and Microbial Infections , 1999 .

[40]  A. Rambaut,et al.  Genetic analysis of West Nile New York 1999 encephalitis virus , 1999, The Lancet.

[41]  E. Ostlund,et al.  Detection of North American West Nile virus in animal tissue by a reverse transcription-nested polymerase chain reaction assay. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[42]  R. Taylor,et al.  Indigenous wild birds of the Nile Delta as potential West Nile virus circulating reservoirs. , 1955, The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene.

[43]  D. Weiss,et al.  Clinical findings of West Nile virus infection in hospitalized patients, New York and New Jersey, 2000. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[44]  L. Kramer,et al.  Mosquito surveillance and polymerase chain reaction detection of West Nile virus, New York State. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[45]  R. Lanciotti,et al.  Pathology of Fatal West Nile Virus Infections in Native and Exotic Birds during the 1999 Outbreak in New York City, New York , 2000, Veterinary pathology.

[46]  Michael W. Parker,et al.  Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. , 1999, Science.

[47]  C. S. Smith,et al.  Fatal encephalitis and myocarditis in young domestic geese (Anser anser domesticus) caused by West Nile virus. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[48]  R. Lanciotti,et al.  West Nile virus in overwintering Culex mosquitoes, New York City, 2000. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[49]  D. Beasley,et al.  West Nile encephalitis , 2003, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[50]  F. Mostashari,et al.  Crow deaths as a sentinel surveillance system for West Nile virus in the northeastern United States, 1999. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[51]  R. Lanciotti,et al.  First field evidence for natural vertical transmission of West Nile virus in Culex univittatus complex mosquitoes from Rift Valley province, Kenya. , 2000, The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene.

[52]  E. Gould,et al.  The relationships between West Nile and Kunjin viruses. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[53]  A. D. da Silva,et al.  Morphologic and molecular characterization of new Cyclospora species from Ethiopian monkeys: C. cercopitheci sp.n., C. colobi sp.n., and C. papionis sp.n. , 1999, Emerging infectious diseases.

[54]  S. Ritchie,et al.  Japanese encephalitis in north Queensland, Australia, 1998 , 1999, The Medical journal of Australia.

[55]  S. Ritchie,et al.  Isolation of Japanese encephalitis virus from Culex annulirostris in Australia. , 1997, The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene.

[56]  C. Tanner,et al.  Epidemiologic aspects. , 2000, Advances in neurology.

[57]  S. Ruță,et al.  A high number of severe neurologic clinical forms during an epidemic of West Nile virus infection. , 1997, Romanian journal of virology.

[58]  S. Pitlik,et al.  West Nile fever outbreak, Israel, 2000: epidemiologic aspects. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.