Comparative life cycle assessment of fossil and bio-based polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles

Both biofuels and bioplastics are often regarded as sustainable solutions to current environmental problems such as climate change, fossil depletion and acidification. However, both have been criticized for being economically costly, competing with other societally beneficial goods such as food, and offering limited environmental benefits compared to their fossil counterparts. This study provides a comparative environmental Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) for 100% bio-based polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles, versus fully fossil-based and partially bio-based PET bottles. An attributional life cycle assessment (aLCA) and sensitivity analysis of key assumptions is carried out to compare cradle-to-factory-gate impacts (i.e. feedstock extraction, component production and product manufacturing) of twelve PET bottle production scenarios. Results indicate that woody-biomass based PET bottles have 21% less global warming potential and require 22% less fossil fuel than their fossil based counterparts, but perform worse in other categories such as ecotoxicity and ozone depletion impacts. Results are sensitive to impact allocation assumptions as well as parameter input assumptions related to isobutanol production. In most categories, with avoided impact credits considered, forest residue feedstocks result in overall better environmental performance than corn stover feedstocks for bio-PET bottle production. The variability in avoided burdens could alter the relative environmental rankings for fossil and bio-PET bottles. Depending on the biomass feedstock, extraction and pre-processing are likely more emission-intensive than the corresponding fossil refinery processes due to the significant upstream emissions embodied in the application of fertilizers, and the significant chemical and energy inputs required to break recalcitrant lignocellulosic bonds.

[1]  Frank Spellman.  Forest-Based Biomass Energy: Concepts and Applications , 2011 .

[2]  G. Zeeman,et al.  Pretreatments to enhance the digestibility of lignocellulosic biomass. , 2009, Bioresource technology.

[3]  Mary Ann Curran,et al.  Environmental life-cycle assessment , 1996 .

[4]  Mohammad Valipour,et al.  A comprehensive study on irrigation management in Asia and Oceania , 2015 .

[5]  Mohammad Ali Gholami Sefidkouhi,et al.  Surface irrigation simulation models: a review , 2015 .

[6]  David Pimentel,et al.  Biofuel Impacts on World Food Supply: Use of Fossil Fuel, Land and Water Resources , 2008 .

[7]  Margni Manuele,et al.  Recommendations for Life Cycle Impact Assessment in the European context - based on existing environmental impact assessment models and factors (International Reference Life Cycle Data System - ILCD handbook) , 2011 .

[8]  Tomas Ekvall,et al.  Choice of system boundaries in life cycle assessment , 1994 .

[9]  H. Hayashi,et al.  Increased impact strength of biodegradable poly(lactic acid)/poly(butylene succinate) blend composites by using isocyanate as a reactive processing agent , 2007 .

[10]  Ernst Worrell,et al.  Comparing life cycle energy and GHG emissions of bio‐based PET, recycled PET, PLA, and man‐made cellulosics , 2012 .

[11]  Danielle Julie Carrier,et al.  Biorefinery co-products: phytochemicals, primary metabolites and value-added biomass processing. , 2012 .

[12]  Michaelangelo D. Tabone,et al.  Sustainability metrics: life cycle assessment and green design in polymers. , 2010, Environmental science & technology.

[13]  David D. Hsu,et al.  Life cycle environmental impacts of selected U.S. ethanol production and use pathways in 2022. , 2010, Environmental science & technology.

[14]  W. Mabee,et al.  Will second‐generation ethanol be able to compete with first‐generation ethanol? Opportunities for cost reduction , 2012 .

[15]  Hong Huo,et al.  Methods of dealing with co-products of biofuels in life-cycle analysis and consequent results within the U.S. context , 2011 .

[16]  J. Sessions,et al.  Robust enzymatic saccharification of a Douglas-fir forest harvest residue by SPORL , 2013 .

[17]  S. Desobry,et al.  Poly-Lactic Acid: Production, Applications, Nanocomposites, and Release Studies. , 2010, Comprehensive reviews in food science and food safety.

[18]  Francesco Cherubini,et al.  The biorefinery concept: Using biomass instead of oil for producing energy and chemicals , 2010 .

[19]  P. Daoutidis,et al.  Process synthesis of biorefineries: Optimization of biomass conversion to fuels and chemicals , 2014 .

[20]  Michael Taylor,et al.  An overview of second generation biofuel technologies. , 2010, Bioresource technology.

[21]  André Faaij,et al.  Bioenergy potentials from forestry in 2050 , 2007 .

[22]  Hua Zhang,et al.  The consumption and recycling collection system of PET bottles: a case study of Beijing, China. , 2014, Waste management.

[23]  M. Giordano,et al.  Biofuels and implications for agricultural water use: blue impacts of green energy , 2008 .

[24]  C. Wyman,et al.  Features of promising technologies for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass. , 2005, Bioresource technology.

[25]  Jeongwoo Han,et al.  Life-cycle fossil energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of bioderived chemicals and their conventional counterparts. , 2014, Environmental science & technology.

[26]  Frank Werner,et al.  Allocation in LCA of wood-based products experiences of cost action E9 , 2002 .

[27]  A. Monti,et al.  Cradle-to-farm gate life cycle assessment in perennial energy crops , 2009 .

[28]  Riina Antikainen,et al.  Forest bioenergy climate impact can be improved by allocating forest residue removal , 2012 .

[29]  G. Norris,et al.  TRACI the tool for the reduction and assessment of chemical and other environmental impacts , 2002 .

[30]  Bryce J. Stokes,et al.  U.S. Billion-ton Update: Biomass Supply for a Bioenergy and Bioproducts Industry , 2011 .

[31]  Jane C. Bare,et al.  TRACI 2.0: the tool for the reduction and assessment of chemical and other environmental impacts 2.0 , 2011 .

[32]  Rajni Hatti-Kaul,et al.  Biorefineries- A Path to Sustainability? , 2010 .

[33]  Min Zhang,et al.  Techno‐economic analysis and life‐cycle assessment of cellulosic isobutanol and comparison with cellulosic ethanol and n‐butanol , 2014 .

[34]  David Pennington,et al.  Recent developments in Life Cycle Assessment. , 2009, Journal of environmental management.

[35]  Vincenzo Piemonte,et al.  Life cycle assessment of polylactic acid and polyethylene terephthalate bottles for drinking water , 2011 .

[36]  Gregory G. Zaimes,et al.  Life-Cycle Environmental Impacts of Biofuels and Co-products , 2013 .

[37]  Mohammad Valipour,et al.  Sprinkle and Trickle Irrigation System Design Using Tapered Pipes for Pressure Loss Adjusting , 2012 .

[38]  Susan Selke,et al.  Critical aspects in the life cycle assessment (LCA) of bio-based materials – Reviewing methodologies and deriving recommendations , 2013 .

[39]  S. Adhikari,et al.  Biorefineries: Current Status, Challenges, and Future Direction , 2006 .

[40]  Brent A. Gloy,et al.  Life cycle assessment of biochar systems: estimating the energetic, economic, and climate change potential. , 2010, Environmental science & technology.

[41]  Michael Kamm,et al.  Biorefinery Systems – An Overview , 2008 .

[42]  R. Narayan.  Carbon footprint of bioplastics using biocarbon content analysis and life-cycle assessment , 2011 .

[43]  S. Andrews.  Crop Residue Removal for Biomass Energy Production: Effects on Soils and Recommendations , 2006 .

[44]  David A. Glassner,et al.  Applications of life cycle assessment to NatureWorks polylactide (PLA) production , 2003 .

[45]  Jean-Paul Hettelingh,et al.  Country-dependent Characterisation Factors for Acidification and Terrestrial Eutrophication Based on Accumulated Exceedance as an Impact Category Indicator (14 pp) , 2006 .

[46]  D W Pennington,et al.  Life cycle assessment: Part 1: Framework, goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, and applications , 2004 .

[47]  Elizabeth E. Hood,et al.  The Bioeconomy: A New Era of Products Derived from Renewable Plant‐Based Feedstocks , 2011 .

[48]  Ernst Worrell,et al.  Life cycle energy and GHG emissions of PET recycling: change-oriented effects , 2011 .

[49]  S. Polasky,et al.  Land Clearing and the Biofuel Carbon Debt , 2008, Science.

[50]  Catherine Azzaro-Pantel,et al.  Multiobjective waste management optimization strategy coupling life cycle assessment and genetic algorithms: Application to PET bottles , 2012 .

[51]  Christian V. Stevens,et al.  Renewable bioresources : scope and modification for non-food applications , 2004 .

[52]  G. Heath,et al.  Environmental and sustainability factors associated with next-generation biofuels in the U.S.: what do we really know? , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[53]  Mohammad Valipour,et al.  Drainage, waterlogging, and salinity , 2014 .

[54]  S. Vivekanandhan,et al.  Coproducts of Biofuel Industries in Value-Added Biomaterials Uses: A Move Towards a Sustainable Bioeconomy , 2013 .

[55]  Susan Selke,et al.  A preliminary LCA case study: comparison of different pathways to produce purified terephthalic acid suitable for synthesis of 100 % bio-based PET , 2014, The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment.

[56]  Gjalt Huppes,et al.  An energy analysis of ethanol from cellulosic feedstock-Corn stover , 2009 .

[57]  Jeroen B. Guinee,et al.  Handbook on life cycle assessment operational guide to the ISO standards , 2002 .

[58]  J. Y. Zhu,et al.  Woody biomass pretreatment for cellulosic ethanol production: Technology and energy consumption evaluation. , 2010, Bioresource technology.

[59]  J. Melillo,et al.  Indirect Emissions from Biofuels: How Important? , 2009, Science.

[60]  T. Nemecek,et al.  Overview and methodology: Data quality guideline for the ecoinvent database version 3 , 2013 .

[61]  Albert W. Chan,et al.  Life Cycle assessment of bio-ethanol derived from cellulose , 2003 .

[62]  Mark A. J. Huijbregts,et al.  USEtox—the UNEP-SETAC toxicity model: recommended characterisation factors for human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity in life cycle impact assessment , 2008 .

[63]  Heather L MacLean,et al.  Life cycle assessment of switchgrass- and corn stover-derived ethanol-fueled automobiles. , 2005, Environmental science & technology.

[64]  Charles Smith,et al.  Co-benefits of utilizing logging residues for bioenergy production: the case for East Texas, USA. , 2007 .

[65]  O. Singh,et al.  Bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass: biochemical and molecular perspectives , 2008, Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology.

[66]  Mohammad Valipour,et al.  Future of agricultural water management in Africa , 2015 .