Functionally graded concrete: Design objectives, production techniques and analysis methods for layered and continuously graded elements

Abstract The pressing need to reduce global carbon emissions together with recent advances in automated manufacturing have driven a growing interest in functionally graded concrete. In functionally graded concrete, the material composition is spatially varied to meet performance demands that differ within regions of a structural element. This offers significant potential to reduce cement consumption. Step-wise layered and continuously graded concrete systems are introduced and investigations of concrete mix combinations to achieve durability, fracture resistance, strength, ductility, cost saving, weight reduction or lower embodied energy improvements are discussed. Production techniques for horizontally layered and vertically layered structural elements in the context of fresh-on-hardened and fresh-on-fresh casting as well as emerging continuously graded processes are presented. Challenges associated with fresh-state deformations, layer interfaces and the need for appropriate fresh and hardened-state modelling tools are critically assessed.

[1]  Tarun Kant,et al.  A critical review of recent research on functionally graded plates , 2013 .

[2]  Qing-hua Li,et al.  Experimental investigation and analysis on flexural performance of functionally graded composite beam crack-controlled by ultrahigh toughness cementitious composites , 2009 .

[3]  K. T. Ramesh,et al.  Dynamic characterization of layered and graded structures under impulsive loading , 2001 .

[4]  M. Koizumi.  FGM activities in Japan , 1997 .

[5]  Shamsad Ahmad.  Reinforcement corrosion in concrete structures, its monitoring and service life prediction - A review , 2003 .

[6]  K. Gangadharan,et al.  Functionally Graded Composite Materials: An Overview , 2014 .

[7]  Clément Gosselin,et al.  Large-scale 3D printing of ultra-high performance concrete – a new processing route for architects and builders , 2016 .

[8]  John C. Koch,et al.  The laws of bone architecture , 1917 .

[9]  G. H. Tattersall,et al.  An investigation on the effect of vibration on the workability of fresh concrete using a vertical pipe apparatus , 1989 .

[10]  M. Shariyat,et al.  Two-dimensional modeling of heterogeneous structures using graded finite element and boundary element methods , 2013 .

[11]  A. Gibb,et al.  Freeform Construction: Mega-scale Rapid Manufacturing for construction , 2007 .

[12]  Y. Shrivastava,et al.  Experimental Study of Functionally Graded Beam with Fly Ash , 2013 .

[13]  Aylie Han,et al.  Effects of Graded Concrete on Compressive Strengths , 2016 .

[14]  O. Ochoa,et al.  TRANSIENT HEAT TRANSFER ANALYSIS OF FUNCTIONALLY GRADED MATERIALS USING ADAPTIVE PRECISE TIME INTEGRATION AND GRADED FINITE ELEMENTS , 2004 .

[15]  Minoo Naebe,et al.  Functionally graded materials: A review of fabrication and properties , 2016 .

[16]  Nicolas Roussel,et al.  Understanding the rheology of concrete , 2012 .

[17]  Mohammad Kazem Sharbatdar,et al.  Flexural performance of functionally graded RC cross-section with steel and PP fibres , 2014 .

[18]  Mohamed Maalej,et al.  Introduction of Strain-Hardening Engineered Cementitious Composites in Design of Reinforced Concrete Flexural Members for Improved Durability , 1995 .

[19]  Michael H. Santare,et al.  USE OF GRADED FINITE ELEMENTS TO MODEL THE BEHAVIOR OF NONHOMOGENEOUS MATERIALS , 2000 .

[20]  Mohamed Maalej,et al.  Corrosion Durability and Structural Response of Functionally-Graded Concrete Beams , 2003 .

[21]  Kah Fai Leong,et al.  3D printing trends in building and construction industry: a review , 2017 .

[22]  N. Roussel,et al.  Distinct-layer casting of SCC: The mechanical consequences of thixotropy , 2008 .

[23]  Fumio Nogata,et al.  Intelligent functionally graded material: Bamboo , 1995 .

[24]  Richard A. Buswell,et al.  3D printing using concrete extrusion: A roadmap for research , 2018, Cement and Concrete Research.

[25]  Richard A. Buswell,et al.  Developments in construction-scale additive manufacturing processes , 2012 .

[26]  G. Paulino,et al.  ISOPARAMETRIC GRADED FINITE ELEMENTS FOR NONHOMOGENEOUS ISOTROPIC AND ORTHOTROPIC MATERIALS , 2002 .

[27]  Behrooz Hassani,et al.  An improved isogeometrical analysis approach to functionally graded plane elasticity problems , 2013 .

[28]  Hareesh V. Tippur,et al.  Numerical analysis of crack-tip fields in functionally graded materials with a crack normal to the elastic gradient , 2000 .

[29]  Karol Sikora,et al.  Assessing the potential of functionally graded concrete using fibre reinforced and recycled aggregate concrete , 2018 .

[30]  George A. Gazonas,et al.  The use of graded finite elements in the study of elastic wave propagation in continuously nonhomogeneous materials , 2003 .

[31]  Neri Oxman,et al.  Structuring Materiality: Design Fabrication of Heterogeneous Materials , 2010 .

[32]  Khosrow Ghavami,et al.  BAMBOO: FUNCTIONALLY GRADED COMPOSITE MATERIAL , 2003 .

[33]  Hareesh V. Tippur,et al.  COMPOSITIONALLY GRADED MATERIALS WITH CRACKS NORMAL TO THE ELASTIC GRADIENT , 2000 .

[34]  K. S. Ramesh,et al.  Modelling studies applied to functionally graded materials , 1995 .

[35]  Amanda Bordelon,et al.  Fracture Behavior of Functionally Graded Concrete Materials for Rigid Pavements , 2007 .

[36]  J. Silfwerbrand.  Concrete Bond in Repaired Bridge Decks , 1990 .

[37]  M. Salehi,et al.  Post-buckling analysis of FGM annular sector plates based on three dimensional elasticity graded finite elements , 2014 .

[38]  Boundary elements and the analog equation method for the solution of elastic problems in 3-D non-homogeneous bodies , 2013 .

[39]  Behrokh Khoshnevis,et al.  Mega-scale fabrication by Contour Crafting , 2006 .

[40]  Glaucio H. Paulino,et al.  Application of Graded Finite Elements for Asphalt Pavements , 2006 .

[41]  R. Watanabe,et al.  Finite Element Analysis of Thermal Stress of the Metal/Ceramic Multi-Layer Composites with Controlled Compositional Gradients , 1987 .

[42]  Subra Suresh,et al.  Functionally graded metals and metal-ceramic composites: Part 2 Thermomechanical behaviour , 1997 .

[43]  G. Paulino,et al.  Numerical Simulations of Fracture Resistance of Functionally Graded Concrete Materials , 2009 .

[44]  J. Lees,et al.  Fresh state stability of vertical layers of concrete , 2019, Cement and Concrete Research.

[45]  J. Tu,et al.  Durability protection of the functionally graded structure concrete in the splash zone , 2013 .

[46]  R. Gallego,et al.  Numerical analysis of quasi-static fracture in functionally graded materials , 2014, International Journal of Mechanics and Materials in Design.

[47]  Xiangyu Wang,et al.  A critical review of the use of 3-D printing in the construction industry , 2016 .

[48]  Subra Suresh,et al.  Functionally graded metals and metal-ceramic composites: Part 1 Processing , 1995 .

[49]  P. Coussot,et al.  Yield stress fluid flows: A review of experimental data , 2014 .

[50]  Glaucio H. Paulino,et al.  Wave propagation and dynamic analysis of smoothly graded heterogeneous continua using graded finite elements , 2007 .

[51]  Raimund Hilber,et al.  FE-Study on the Effect of Gradient Concrete on Early Constraint and Crack Risk , 2018 .

[52]  Phillip Frank Gower Banfill,et al.  The rheology of fresh concrete , 1983 .

[53]  G. Paulino,et al.  Cohesive fracture model for functionally graded fiber reinforced concrete , 2010 .

[54]  Fazil Erdogan.  Fracture mechanics of functionally graded materials , 1995 .

[55]  Shigeyasu Amada,et al.  Fracture properties of bamboo , 2001 .

[56]  Bamadev Sahoo,et al.  Finite element analysis of functionally graded bone plate at femur bone fracture site , 2018 .

[57]  Werner Sobek,et al.  Functionally graded concrete: Numerical design methods and experimental tests of mass‐optimized structural components , 2017 .

[58]  B. Kieback,et al.  Processing techniques for functionally graded materials , 2003 .

[59]  D. Rao,et al.  Finite Element Modeling and Analysis of Functionally Graded (FG) Composite Shell Structures , 2012 .

[60]  J. W. Eischen,et al.  Fracture of nonhomogeneous materials , 1987, International Journal of Fracture.

[61]  Andrew W Gale,et al.  A design tool for resource-efficient fabrication of 3d-graded structural building components using additive manufacturing , 2017 .

[62]  Werner Sobek,et al.  Rosenstein Pavilion: Design and structural analysis of a functionally graded concrete shell , 2019, Structures.

[63]  J. Øverli,et al.  Structural behaviour of layered beams with fibre-reinforced LWAC and normal density concrete , 2016 .

[64]  V. Papadakis.  Effect of supplementary cementing materials on concrete resistance against carbonation and chloride ingress , 2000 .

[65]  Akira Kawasaki,et al.  Concept and P/M fabrication of functionally gradient materials , 1997 .

[66]  Ch. Zhang,et al.  Transient dynamic analysis of a cracked functionally graded material by a BIEM , 2003 .

[67]  G. H. Tattersall,et al.  The effect of vibration on the rheological properties of fresh concrete , 1988 .

[68]  Rayleigh-Taylor Instability in Elastoplastic Solids: A Local Catastrophic Process. , 2016, Physical review letters.

[69]  Michael H. Santare,et al.  Numerical Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors in Functionally Graded Materials , 2000 .

[70]  Paulo Jorge Da Silva bartolo,et al.  Functionally Graded Structures through Building Manufacturing , 2013 .

[71]  Michael H. Santare,et al.  Experimental investigation of the quasi-static fracture of functionally graded materials , 2000 .